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NATURE AND REASON 



HARMONIZED 



IN THE 



PRACTICE OF HUSBANDRY 



BY THE LATE JOHN LORAIN. 



WITH ^JV ALPBdBETICAL IJ^DEX. 



PHILADELPHIA : 

H. C. CAREY & I. LEA CHESNUT STREET 

1825„ 



Eastern Distiict of Pennsylvania, to wit .- 
•*»*»*» BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twenty-fourth day of Janu- 
JSeal.J arj', in the forty-7iinth year of the Independence of the United 
«»»«*«J States of America, A. D. 1825, Martha Lorain, of the said District, 

hath deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof she claims 

as Proprietor, in the words following, to wit : 

" Nature and Reason harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry. By the 
" late John Lorain. With an alphabetical Index." 

In confoi-mity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An 
Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, 
and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the times 
therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled, " an Act supplementary 
to an Act, entitled, ' an Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing 
the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such 
copies, during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof 
to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." 

D. CALDWELL, 
Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsvlvanin. 






CONTENTS. 



BOOK I. 

ON MANURES AND VEGETATION. 

Chapter i.— Of the action of Lime in its caustic state. Also, that of the 
Carbonate of Lime, Marl, and powdered Limestone, considered. Page 1 

Cbap. II.— The theory of the AlkaUes, and various Saline Substances, con- 
sidered ; also, that of Gypsum, as established by long and very extensive 
practical observation 12 

Cbap. hi. — Gypsum, the Alkalies and various Saline Substances, together 
with other matters found in the structure of Plants, are highly important 
in the Economy of Vegetation. Still, stimulating Manures should be 
cautiously and prudently used ; especially as eveiy Soil is fertile, if a 
sufficiency of Animal and Vegetable Matters exists in it. The Economy 
of Nature in the management of our Forests, Glades and Prairies, des- 
cribed. The quantity of Animal Matter considerably increased by the 
introduction of innumerable Animalcula. Also, the extensive useful- 
ness of the Plants which are considered useless and injurious by too 
many Farmers, and the provision made by Nature to spread tliem over 
exhausted Soils, &c. and to accumulate Animal Matter by the introduc 
tion of them. -..----...-23 

Chap. iv. — Gravitation does not, as has been asserted by some, " dispose 
the parts of Plants to take a uniform direction ;" nor do they " owe 
their perpendicular direction to Gravity." Neither is the Sap raised 
by " the agency of Heat, capillaiy Attraction," nor the " Contractions 
and Expansions of the Silver Grain of the Wood :" but by the living or 
vital principle in Plants, acting in a temperature which favours the pro- 
cess 34 

Chap. v. — It is shown that Men and other Animals are quite as much, or 
probably more, affected and injured, by changes in temperature, than 
Plants are. Also, that the suspension or lanfruid action of the living 
principle in Trees, during the winter, furnishes no just cause for ques- 
tioning their Vitality or Anunation. The sleep or folding up of the 



IV CONTENTS. 

Leaves of Plants at night, (as usually described,) appears to be a inls 
taken theory ; as it would seem, that the Leaves of Plants fold or curl 
up through the heat of the day, more generally than they do through 
the night. The Animation and Sensibility of Plants considered. It 
is also shown that the small size of the Pores in the Roots and Radical 
Vibres of Plants, is a wise provision of nature. .... 50 

Chap. vi. — The Heart-wood of a Tree proved to be alive, and increasing 
annually in size. It is also shown, that the Poi'es in the Wood appear 
to be well constructed to admit a lateral circulation from the Alburnum 
to the Pith. Linnaeus's and Dr. Hales's theories of the Pith considered. 
The changes in Timber explained. ...--- 61 

Chap. vii. — It is shown that any one of the Earths when enriched with 
Animal and Vegetable Matter, will produce luxuriant Vegetation, but 
that no mixture of them will produce the same effect without the aid of 
these Substances. The practice of Paring and Burning the Soil is con- 
sidered. How Substances originating in Animal and Vegetable Matter 
may recede or depart so far from their original form, as to retain but 
little if any nutriment for Plants. The theory of the usefulness of car- 
bonaceous Matter as Manure, has been carried quite too far. - 78 

Chap. tiii. — It has been wisely ordered that Man and Animals in general 
should loathe and reject decaying Animal and Vegetable Substances, 
and that plants should live on putrescent Matter in all the various forms 
it has been destined to assume. How these Matters are spread and in- 
timately blended by Nature over all Soils. Farm yard Manure loses 
one-half, when decomposed previously to using it Laboriously formed 
Compounds considered. It is shown that Nature is not deficient in the 
processes of Fermentation and Decomposition. The use of stimulating 
Manures considered. Fresh Dung highly incorporated with Litter, is 
effectually decomposed after it has been ploughed under the Soil, and 
keeps either Clay or sandy Soils moister during a dry time than decom- 
posed dung. Top dressing with prutrescent Manures, a very wasteful 
practice : still the best mode of doing it explained. The loss in Manure 
arising from improper Practices considered. A description of the best 
mode of constructing Cattle Yards Also of preserving Dung from waste. 
A description of a common Receptacle calculated to save the Manures 
arising in and about a Farmer's House. 99 

Chap. ix. — Manures not in generaUise pointed otit. Vegetable Substances 
should not be reduced to Ashes when Mamu'e is the only object, and 
the Substances can be applied without being burned. The best mode 
of applying Lmie when Substances to be decomposed are ploughed 
vmder the Soil. Sir Humphrey Davy's tlieory of the Indecom])Osable 
I'roperty of Woody Fibre considered; also, what he and Mr. Young say 
of Tanners' waste Bark. The eff'ects of Water on Vegetation. Prac 
tical Observation seems to determine, that with proper management the 
Soil may be gn-eatly enriched, by the Depositions from the Atmosphere. 
On the Interesting Economy of the Kidney Bean, &c. How Gypsum 
acts when Seeds have been rolled in it previously to their being sown. llS 



GONTENTS. V 

BOOK II. 

ON CULTIVATION. 

Chap. x. — Remai-ks on putting in small Grain on Stubble Grounds. A 
degree of merit is justly due to a naked Fallow executed in the usual 
way. The disadvantages arising from that Practice considered. The 
usual mode of Cultivating Fallow Crops contrasted with the practice 
recommended by the Author. Observations on the value of Grass Lays, 
and the proper Cultivation of them. The Red Clover Plant is destroy- 
ed by frequent Mowing and close Pasturing. Fermentation, properly 
directed, is the main spring of Vegetation. 129 

Chap. xi. — Fall Ploughing for a Crop of Maize considered. The injurious 
effects of turning up the Sod and Manure in the Cultivation of a Fallow 
Crop explained. Also by turning it up for the small Grain following 
that Crop. Plants are greatly injured by cutting their Roots in the 
usual mode of Cultivation. The advantages derived from a superficial 
Cultivation of a Fallow Crop considered. The Nuti'iment arising from 
Weeds should be as carefully applied and preserved as that from our 
favourite Plants. Maize is the best Fallow Crop if the Cultivator has 
the destruction of Weeds especially in view. Potatoes may be justly 
ranked among the worst of Crops to effect this purpose. - - 134 

Chap. xii. — A proper and an improper Cultivation contrasted. The 
Speargrasses let in Weeds. Red Clover smothers them. Small Grain, 
sown in the Spring, favours the destruction of Weeds, more than Grain 
sown in the Fall Observations on the lenient properties of Plants. 
The Grasses are far cheaper and more enriching than the cultivated 
Crops generally grown and turned under for Manure. The application 
of fresh Dung advocated. It does not, as we have been told, "Burst 
the vessels of most valuable Plants." Neither does it " produce in Grain 
Crops, Smut, Blight, and Mildew ;" nor do " myriads of Mice and Moles 
infest Potato Crops," in consequence of the application of " Strawy 
Muck" as Manure for this Plant. - - 145 

Chap. xiii. — The practice of Ploughing from and to Plants considered, 
and its injurious effects explained. The expanding force of Fermenta- 
tion cannot be powerful where a sufficiency of Animal or Vegetable 
Matter does not obtain. Of the marked Fertility arising from Ploughing 
in Buckwheat, or turning up a Clover Lay from a Wlieat Crop. The 
depth of Ploughing should be in proportion to the Animal and Vegeta- 
ble Matter contained in the Soil. 153 

Chap. xiv. — Very luxuriant Crops too seldom determine good manage- 
ment. The error of too close Planting exposed. Ridges produce ar- 
tificial Drought. The evils arising from old Grass Grounds pointed out. 
Many and highly important advantages are to be obtained by sowing 
Grass Seed separately. The Plough, in the hands of an inconsiderate 
Cultivator, speedily exhausts the Soil. When this Instrument is proper- 
ly used, it gi'eatly hastens the improvement of it. Convertible Hus- 



VI CONTENTS. 

bandry is the most profitable practice, where Population and Capital 
prevail. A more extensive attention to Grass and rearing Live Stock 
suits our Back-woods Settlements best. ..... 161 

Chap, xv-— Fallow Crops should be grown on Grass Lays. The Spear- 
grasses are best for this purpose. A Red Clover Lay is best for small 
Grain. The texture of any Soil is most advantageously altered, by the 
Roots and Tops of the Grasses, properly applied and ordered. The 
judicious application of this Vegetation, will often supersede the neces- 
sity of Ridging and under Draining. How Ridges should be formed and 
Cultivated in retentive Soils. The injury done by hilling, ridging, and 
moulding up Plants is explained, as are also the advantages derived 
from a level and very superficial Cultivation. It is shown that altering 
the present general practice of Husbandry, so that every Fallow Crop 
may be superficially cultivated, can be readily done. Obsei-vations on 
preparing the Soil for small Grain, when it ought not, or cannot, be 
conveniently done by a Fallow Crop. ...... 170 

Chap. xvi. — Observations on what some say of the earthy Texture of the 
Soils, and the Manures to be applied to them. Also, on the different 
Circumstances, Capital, and Situation of Farmers. A concise description 
of the best course of Crops. Remarks on the width of Ridges in reten- 
tive Soils. A description of the Cultivation of a Crop of Wheat grown 
on a springy Soil, with observations on the result. Under draining Soils 
which are merely retentive of Moisture, is a useless, injurious, and very 
expensive Practice. Proper Water Furrowing for small Grain explun- 
ed ; also, observations on the ruinous and too general neglect of this 
Practice. - 190 

Chap. xtii. — The exhausting properties of Maize compared with those of 
Turnips and Potatoes. The five original Corns commonly used for Field 
Planting described ; also the mixed varieties formed by them. Observa- 
tions on the Canadian and other Corns still smaller : also on the Red, 
Blue and Purple Corns. The advantages to be derived from mixed va- 
rieties of Maize explained ; also the best way to effect this purpose. 
Improvement in Plants is more readily effected than the same is done in 
Animals. Climate alters mixed varieties of Corn greatly, and very gene- 
rally without its being observed by the Cultivator. Those who live in 
inhospitable Climates, should select their Seed from Climates which 
are most like those in which they reside. The advantages to be derived 
from early Sowing and Planting in cold backward Climates. Local 
causes alter Climates so much, that neither latitude, nor height, nor the 
influence of surrounding Seas can determine the proper time for Sowing 
or Planting. No reliance can be placed on the Indian rule for Sowing 
and Planting. Observations on tlie Frosts which sometimes take place 
in high latitudes in August ; also, on the means to be taken to avoid any 
very serious injury from them. Maize is well calculated to withstand 
drought, and to contend with an impoverished Soil. It gathers much of 
the nutriment by which its Fruit is perfected from the atmosphere. 
Remarks on the Diseases to which the Corn Plant is subject. Obser- 
vations on the untimely Frosts, &c. which happened in 1816. - 201 



CONTENTS. VIJ 

Chip, xviii. — Remarks on the economy of the Potato. Also on growing 
it on thin set Woodlands. Directions how to grow this Plant, so as to 
obtain a succession of new Potatoes throughout the Winter. It will 
live and perfect its Fruit on but little nourishment. Some varieties are 
vastly more productive than others. To obtain the best, the Seed should 
be sown and cultivated. Observations on the mode of cutting the Sets 
and Cultivating the Plant. Also on scooping out the Eyes, planting, and 
cultivating them. The largest Potatoes should be selected for Seed. 
By planting small ones tlie best variety is degenerated. The Crop is 
injured by misplacing the Vines and Leaves in the cultivation of it. 230 

Chap. xix. — On Hand Hoeing ; also drilling Turnips. The Seed is gene- 
rally sown too late. On sowing it, so as greatly to lessen the risk of 
injury from the Fly. Observations on the Ruta Baga, or Swedish Turnip. 241 

Chap. XX.— On the Carrot, Parsnip and Beet. Also, on manghng the Beet, 
the Grape Vine and other Plants. On sowing Maize broad cast, for Solhng. 246 

Chap, xxx.— On the arrangement, and superficial cultivation of a Crop of 
Maize. In what cases Lime may be profitably used for this Crop ; also, 
how it should be managed, and applied. The benefit arising from rolling 
the Seed in Gypsum ; also, from covering them with a Compost formed 
with light loose Soil and Dung. How Seed is to be gathered and pre- 
served. On the ma«agement to be pursued, when heavy Rain, &c. 
forms a hard crust, which the Plants cannot penetrate. When, and how, 
the Grsun and Fodder of this Crop should be gathered and cured. - 250 

Chap, xxix — How, and in what cases, mixed Crops, formed with Maize 
and low growing Plants are profitable. On the cultivation of a mixed 
Crop of Maize, and the Kidney Bunch Bean. Beans bear transplanting 
better than Corn They, and every other Plant, grow most luxuriantly 
in % rich Soil. They are a very lenient, also, a very profitable Crop, if 
properly cultivated. The very close shade formed by their Foliage, pul- 
verises the Soil more effectually, than is done by a naked Fallow well 
prepared ; they of consequence prepare the Soil well for small Grain. 
Observations for sowing Buckwheat among forn. Also, on planting 
Pompions and Beans, with long running Vines among it. Where the 
Potato sells well for table use, it will be found the most profitable Plant, 
to form a mixed Crop with Maize. ...... 261 

Chap, xxm — On the cultivation of Flax. Too little Seed is sown. It is 
injured in new Grounds by the shade formed by the Tree. How the 
Seed sown for this and other Crops may be well coated with Gypsum. 267 

Chap. xxit. — On the cultivation of Hemp. 269 

BOOK III. 

ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS. 

Chap, ixv.— Observations on the quantity of Wheat that should be sown 
to the Acre ; also, on the proper time of sowing it. How any material 
injury from the Hessian Fly may be generally avoided. Remarks on the 
generally prevailing opinion that the Wheat Plant is smothered by snow. 
Observations on drilling Wheat ; also, on Spring Wheat, - - 273 



VIU eONTENTS. 

Chap. xxvr. — Remarks on the cultivation of Rye. Also, on its not being 
so hardy a Plant as Wheat. It is subject to much fewer diseases than 
Wheat. Observations on Spring Rye. 283 

Chap, xxvii — On the cultivation of Barley, and the quantity of Seed that 
ought to be sown to the Acre. 285 

Chap, xxviii On the cultivation of Oats. Barley may be more profitably 

cultivated than Oats on rich Soils, even for the purpose of feeding do- 
mesticated Animals. On harvesting Grain 286 

Chap. xxix. — On stubble crop Grasses, and the management of them. On 
the properties of Timothy, and on making it into Hay. On the bad con- 
sequences arising from sowing too little Grass Seed. Observations on 
Grazing and Soiling ; also, on the effects produced by the salivation, oc- 
casioned by second and third crop Red Clover, both in Soiling and Pas- 
ture. Remarks on Orchard, and Oat Grasses. - - - - 289 

Chap. xxx. — Observations on Green Grass. Further remarks on Grazing; 
also, on Orchard Grass and Red Clover. On Haymaking. - - 297 

Chap. xxxi. — On soiling, or feeding Cattle in Yards or Stalls. Much injury 
is done by feeding second and third crop Clover to Cattle when confined 
in Stables or Yards. Various and highly important advantages are to be 
derived by feeding Cattle on Grass in Yards. Soiling cannot be profitably 
practised on an extensive scale, unless the Cattle be reared in the Yard, 
or brought in while they are very young. On Cattle hoven by eating 
Red Clover, &c. On giving Salt to Cattle. On Hogs and Sheep. Every 
Farmer should soil his working Cattle and Horses. . - - . 307 

Chap, xxxii. — The merits of convertible Husbandry, united with soiling, 
explained and illustrated by a comparative statement of Crops. On 
Winter Fattening Cattle. Reason assigned wliy any given space of Gi-ass 
Grounds will furnish much more food for Cattle when Grass is fed to them 
in the Yard than if they were pastured on it. On the use of Oxen in 
place of Horses. 321 

Chap, xxxiii. — How the Pennsylvania Back-woods Farmer clears his 
Grounds. On sti-ipping off the Leaves from the Trees in the spring. 
On the inconsiderate waste of Timber. On the system of cultivation 
pursued by the Pennsylvania Back-woods Farmer. How the Yankee 
Back-woods Farmer clears his Grounds. On the destruction introduced 
by his mode of burning the Soil. How this injury is best seen. On 
improving the poor places, which appear in Grounds recently cleared ; 
and how they originate. - 33 1 

Chap. xxxiv.The cultivation pursued by the Pennsylvania Back-woods 
Farmer, contrasted by that practised by the Yankee. The Yankee mode 
of cleai'ing new Grounds, may be readily altered, so as to be by far the 
best practice that has yet been pursued ; and how this may be done. On 
the best method to be pursued in the cultivation of the different kinds 
of new Soil 340 

Chap, xxxv.— On Barns, Cattle Sheds, Barracks, and Hay Savers. On the 
different ways by which Cattle are fed and sheltered through the winter. 353 

Chap, xxxti. — Mathematical Precision, necessary to a highly improved 
Husbandry. 3o9 



CONTENTS. IX 

Chap, xxxvir. — On the Hoe Harrow. A simple Gauge for dropping corn, 
beans, ?cc. in clusters. On the Corn Crib. On the Shovel Plough. On 

the Skim. 365 

Chap, xxxviti. — On Hedges. 370 

Chap, xxxix. — On Cats. 372 

Chap. xl. — On Orchards. It is believed a better form than that in general 

use may be given to Fruit Trees. ....--. 375 
Chap. xli. — On the Sugar tree. 393 



BOOK IV. 

ON GENTLEMAN FARAUNG: 

ALSO, ON CIBCUMSCWBED FAHMING ; OR THE BEST MODE TO BE PURSUED, ■WEEX 

THE CAPITAt EMPLOYED IS INSUFFICIEISTT TO FARM TO THE 

BEST AiJVAJMTAGE. 

Chap. xlii. — Observations on the causes which have increased Gentleman 
Farming. Their expensive establishments considered. - - 403 

Chap, xliii. — Remarks on the Gentleman's country establishment, and a 
more economical management proposed. . . . , . 410 

Chap. xliv. — The delusive expectation of rural enjoyments considered. 
Observations on the erroneous calculations of profit arising from sending 
Fruit, Vegetables, &c. to Market. The value of Maize contrasted <Hth 
that of Potatoes and other Roots. The means by which the Gentleman 
may soonest and best become acquainted with practical Husbandry. 423 

Chap, xlt — The merits of different systems of Cropping and Management 
considered. - 439 

Chap. xtvi. — ^A description of the effects produced by feeding Cattle on 
Straw through the Winter. Large Farms are more expensive than 
smaller ones in proportion to size. How Gentlemen may improve Agri- 
culture generally ; also, the systems pursued by the Tenants living on 
their estates. Remarks on improved breeds of Cattle, also, on complex 
and expensive agricultural implements of Husbandry. - - - 455 

Chap, xlvh — On deep Ploughing. Doctor Anderson's mode of planting 
Potatoes considered. Remarks on purchasing and rearing Cattle. Very 
great advantages are obtained by keeping correct Farming Accounts. 
How those Accounts may be kept with but little writing or trouble. The 
great use of keeping a regular diary explained. .... 458 

CHap. xlviii. — Observations on British convertible Husbandry, as prac- 
tised in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Scotland. The errors in this Husbandry 
explained. On the Threshing Mills invented in Scotland. On the mis- 
taken opinion, that as Turnips, and various other green Crops, do not 
perfect their seed generally on the Soil where they are grown, they are 
ameliorating. It is proved that the useless expense attached to British 
Husbandry, has fontied a new era in the annals of Agriculture ; that it 
has placed the Farmers in that country on the pension list, to an amount 
nearly equal to half the value of the Crops grown bv them. - 480 

b 



X CONTENTS. 

Chap. xtrx. — Observations on the different classes of Farmers in limited 
circumstances : also on the injuiious error of occupying more land than 
can be cultivated properly, by the capital employed. IJemarks on the 
ruinous practices too generally pursued by Tenants in this country: also, 
on tile measures to be taken to prevent these evils. Two distinct sys- 
tems of Manag-ement, recommended to be practised by the circumscribed 
Cultivator. The extensive usefulness of the Grasses when employed 
by the circumscribed Farmer for Manure, explained. Also, how they 
should be applied and managed by him. How tlie Soil is ameliorated 
by a Turnip Crop. On growing potatoes on Grass lays without Dung. 494 

Chap. i. — Instructions for growing Turnips and Maize on Grass grounds, 
without the use of Dung. Also, for cultivating Fallow Crops, sown broad 
cast, to be followed by siuall Gi-aia. The economy of buckwheat con- 
sidered, and whether it would not be better to sow it early in the spring, 
than at the usual time. It is shown that too free a use of the plough, 
and but Uttle attention to grass and rearing live stock, are the principal 
causes of the poverty, which, too generally, prevails among circum- 
scribed Farmers. Also, tliat building costly dwelUng-house.s, barns, &c. 
before a sufficiency of live stock has been introduced to farm to the 
best advantage, is, saying the least that can be said of it, a very in- 
jurious practice. -* - - 511 

Chap, li — The Atmosphere is not, as too many have said, the vast ocean 
of Food for plants. The food to be derived from it, and that from animal 
and \iegetable matters considered. Remarks on the fallacy of the con- 
clusions drawn from the experiment made by the Willow ; also on the 
wounded Locust. The circulation of the Sap considered. - - 525 

Chap. lu. — Uemai'ks on Colonel Taylor's Practice. To him belongs 
the honour of forming a System of Management, calculated to promote 
the Agriculture, Prosperity, and Wealth of Vii-ginia. - - - 438 



BOOK I. 
ON MANUEES AND A'fiGETATION 



CHAPTER L 



Of the action of lime in its caustic state. Also, that of the carbonate of 
lime, marl, and powdered limestone, considered. 

-A SUFFICIENCY of lime, to answer every purpose in the economy 
of plants and animals, exists in animated nature, and is inti- 
mately blended with all soils, whether they be calcareous, or othejr- 
wise. Very erroneous theories have been propagated, in conse- 
quence of not duly considering that substances originating in 
animal and vegetable matters, may so recede or depart from their 
original form, that but little, if any, of the properties of the original 
substance is retained. 

Observations on the economy of nature, where calcareous matter 

abounds. 

To understand the nutritious matters on which plants live, we 
should become acquainted with the vegetable economy, and the 
analogy between plants and animals; also, with the means employ- 
ed by nature to propagate animal and vegetable life, to the utmost 
extent, where she presiiles uncontrolled by man. Therefore, the 
consideration of these subjects will be connected with my explana- 
tion of the nature and properties of manures, and the best methods 
to be used in gathering, preserving, applying, and keeping them 
from useless waste, after they have been applied. 

1 will first draw a line of distinction between those manures 
which actually enrich the soil, and those that merely excite fer- 
tility without producing that effect. 

All animal and vegetable substances enrich the soil. No other 
substances are known to effect this invaluable purpose. 

Mechanical manures, such as clay, sand, gravel, &c. when 
properly applied, promote vegetation by altering the texture of the 
soil, and do not injure the enriching substances found in it. 

The manures which are generally termed stimulating, also pro- 
mote vegetation, but in doing this, they exhaust the soil : hence it 
is, that the fertilizing powers of lime and gypsuii), will cease to act 
when they no longer find a sufficiency of animal or vegetable mat- 
ters in the soil to act upon, and will resume their action, as soon 
as either of those enriching manures has been applied. 

It seems to be generally believed that gypsum assists the decom- 
position of such animal and vegetable substances, as either from 
iheir texture, or from being too thinly scattered through the soil, 
cannot be decomposed by the less powerful operations of nature or 

A 



art, with sufficient despatch to produce luxuriant vegetation ; also, 
that this substance excites the plants, and increases their capacity 
for gathering and digesting nutriment. 

It is certain that gypsum produces amazing fertility in old 
worn out soils, where but few traces of animal or vegetable matter 
appear; likewise, that great debility generally takes place in such 
soils, in consequence of the exhausting influence of this substance, 
when proper attention has not been given, to introduce a sufficiency 
of animal or vegetable matter to counteract the impoverishing 
effects of this powerful promoter of vegetation. 

When this substance was first introduced as a manure, its ex- 
hausting properties were not known, and many greatly injured 
their grounds by the improper use of it; especially those who re- 
sided where there was a ready market for hay. This caused loud 
complaints. They have, however, been nearly silenced, by the 
practice of those who were careful to return to the ground a rea- 
sonable proportion of its product; and the improvement made in 
the soil, by the judicious use of this substance, almost exceeds 
credibility. 

Since it has been more generally known that gypsum is a very 
valuable manure for wheat, when the seed is rolled in it, or when 
that substance is strewed over the surface of the ground, and is 
either harrowed or ploughed in with the seed,* its exhausting 
properties are more to be dreaded. If, however, a sufficiency of the 
product of the soil be returned to it, this practice may prove very 
beneficial. 

Lime is generally applied immediately, or soon after, it is slaked ; 
or if it be suffered to lie long in heap, after it has been slaked, 
there is reason to believe that it obtains but little carbonic acid 
until after it is spread over the soil, for mortar will remain long 
in bulk before it becomes a solid body. 

The caustic property of the lime continues to act on the animal 
and vegetable matter contained in tlie ground, until the lime be- 
comes perfectly effete. Therefore, this powerful promoter of vege- 
tation greatly exhausts the soil, unless a due proportion of the 
vegetation excited by it be returned to the land. How lime acts, 
after it becomes effete, does not seem to be well understood. 

It is asserted by Sir H. Davy, that, "ChalK, calcareous marls, 
and powdered limestone, act merely by forming a useful earthy 
ingredient in the soil."t It is, however, difficult to conceive how 
so small a quantity of powdered limestone, as has been success- 
fully used, could produce such valuable effects on vegetation, if it 
" acts merely by forming a useful earthy ingredient in the soil." 
It is well known, that water is capable of dissolving most natural 

* However useful it may be to harrow in the jjypsunri, it does not seem, 
likely to produce the same immediate powerful effect, as is obtained by rolling 
the seed in that substance, 

\ See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 21 and 22. 



3 

bodies, and of imbibing and conveying their properties ; and tliat 
the water passing among limestone, partakes of that hard substance. 
As the effect produced in the animal economy, by the use of the 
water from our limestone springs, seems to determine its stimu- 
lating properties, it is probable that the water in contact with the 
powdered limestone in the soil, imbibes the calcareous matter in 
sufficient quantities to produce valuable effects on vegetation. 

Dr. Darwin observes, " lime, in its pure state, is soluble in about 
600 times its weight of water ; and by greater quantities of carbonic 
acid than are necessary for its crystallization, it is soluble in much 
greater quantities, as appears by the calcareous depositions of the 
waters at Matlock; and may, I suppose, supply a nutritious substance 
by uniting with mucilage or oil, either in the earth or at the roots 
of vegetables, or on the surface of the soil, which may be gradually 
washed down to them.'-* 

Sir H. Davy tells us, " The acids found in the vegetable king- 
dom are numerous ;"t also, that " the acetic acidi or.vinegar, forms 
soluble salts with alkalies and earths ;" and " thf malic acid forms 
soluble salts with lime."| Likewise, that '• the carbonic acid 
united to lime or magnesia, if any stronger acid happens to be form- 
ed in the soil during the fermentation of vegetable matter which 
will be disengaged from the earths, may be decomposed. "§ Also, 
when " the water used in irrigation has flowed over a calcareous 
country, it is generally found impregnated with carbonate of lime, 
and in this state tends in many instances to ameliorate the soil."|| 

No fresh vegetable substance is decomposed either within or upon 
the soil without acid being formed ; therefore, the action of the 
weaker, as well as of the more powerful of these acids on the carbo- 
nate of lime, seems to be obvious; especially as water, without the 
aid of acids, acts slowly on limestone. It should also be recollected, 
that the surface to be acted upon by either, is greatly increased by 
reducing the limestone to powder. 

It is difficult to believe that the amelioration from water which 
has flowed over a calcareous country, proceeds merely from its con- 
veying a substance " forming an useful earthy ingredient in the soil." 
The depositions of the calcareous matter must progress very slowly, 
and the valuable effects produced in vegetation by the impregnated 
water quickly appear: the reason seems obvious, for this gentleman, 
on another occasion, (and when he seems not to have been thinking 
of the theory now under consideration,) cautions farmers, to avoid 
the injurious decomposing property of the carbonate of lime, by 
observing that, " In washing of sheep, the use of the water contain- 
ing carbonate of lime should be avoided, for this substance decom- 
poses the yolk of the wool, which is an animal soap, i. e. a compound 
of oily matter and potassa, with a little oily matter in excess."ir Thus 

♦ See his Phil pages 215 and 216. 

f See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 106. ^ Idem, page 108. 

§ Idem, page 177. § Idem, page 351. H Idem, pages 369 and 370. 



we see that one fact, substantiated by practice and observation, is 
generally of much more consequence than a multitude of chemical 
experiments, resting on theory alone. Yet it clearly appears, that 
Sir Humphrey must have reasoned on this very interesting fact, no 
further than wool was concerned ; otherwise he would have been bet- 
ter acquainted with the nature and properties of the carbonate of 
lime. He is not content with asserting, that " Chalk, calcareous 
marls, and powdered limestone, act merely by forming an useful 
earthy ingredient in the soil," but also says, " mild lime, powdered 
limestone, marls, or chalk, prevent the too rapid decomposition of 
substances already dissolved, but have no tendency to form soluble 
matters." 

But to cast further light on this subject. The value of marl, is 
generallv estimated by the proportion of calcareous matter contained 
in it; for though the other ingredients, when properly applied, act 
as mechanical manures, they are bulky and weighty, and will seldom 
pay for the expense of digging, hauling and spreading, particularly if 
a proper system of husbandry be pursued.* Marl is in general consi- 
dered a much more lasting manure than lime : the cause of this is evi- 
dent, the calcareous matter contained in this compound, is not ren- 
dered caustic by calcination, neither is the carbonic acid expelled 
by that process. 

As the calcareous matter and carbonic acid contained in marls, 
must act on the soil, and also on the growing vegetation in tlie same 
way as does powdered limestone, tlie value of the latter seems to 
be determined by the very valuable and lasting effects of the former. 

Pulverised limestone, at the rate of from eight to ten bushels to 
the acre, has been tried in this country on grass grounds, and great- 
ly increased the crops.f I have never used lime prepared in this way, 
but believe it merits more attention than has been given to it. It 
is also doubtful, whether, under a proper system of management, it 
will cost more to quarry, haul, pulverise, and apply ten bushels of 
limestone, (if th^ stone be pulverised immediately after it is quar- 
T\ed,\) than it usually cos-ts to burn and apply twenty bushels of 
lime. The quarrying and hauling in the latter case would be double. 
The cost of fuel and burning in some situations is considerable. 

After having clearly demonstrated (even from Sir Humphrey's 
own testimony) the decomposing property of the carbonate of lime, 
it would be useless to say more at present of calcareous matter, 
were it not that nature has caused it to exist in various forms. 
Some of the forms in which it appears, seem to be vastly more 
interesting than otliers. None, however, would appear more highly 
important, than that enough of lime to answer every purpose in the 

" This win be hceafter explained. 

■j- See Boardley's J^lusbandry, pages 484 and 48 i, 

4 Stone is commonly much softer before than after it has been exposed to the 
influence of tlxe sun and air. It is, of consequence, more readily pulverised 
or ground. 



ccoTiomy of plants and animals, exists in animated nature ; and is 
intimately blende<l with all soils, whether they be called calcareous, 
or otherwise. This is accomplished by the death and decay of the 
vegetation grown on them; also, by the dissolution and decom- 
position of the animalcula, which had subsisted on this vegetation, 
together with the dung furnished by them, and the larger animals 
fed on the grounds. 

If these very obvious facts had been sufficiently considered by 
chemists, philosophers, and writers on farming; also, that the 
further any substance recedes or departs from that in which it has 
been supposed to originate, the less of the properties of the original 
substance are retained ; the agricultural eflfects produced by many 
different substances would not have been so often and so egre- 
giously misunderstood. Of consequence, not so, often uselessly, 
and but too frequently ruinously applied. 

Doctor Darwin says, " Margraft' found that many vegetable mat- 
ters, particularly farinaceous grains, contain enough of phosphoric 
acid to produce phosphorus, when exposed to great heat, and that 
phosphorus has been detected in every kind of vegetable and animal 
substance;" but "in greater quantity in the parts, and recrements 
of animals, as in their flesh, dung, urine, and bone ashes, and most 
copiously in the two latter." After this, he observes, that, "an im- 
portant question now occurs ; if this same simple material phos- 
phorus be not generally made in the vessels of vegetables, whence 
do they acquire it? They probably obtain it in considerable quan- 
tity from the recrements of decaying vegetable and animal bodies, 
as appears in rotten wood, ami in putrefying flesh, bone ashes, and 
salts of urine. But I suppose there is another source of phospho- 
rus, I mean in calcareous earth, which has also been of animal 
origin in the early ages of the world." Also, " It would appear, 
that the immense quantity of limestone in the world, which was 
originally formed from the shells of sub-marine animals, has, during 
the long lapse of time, lost more or less of its original phosphoric 
acid ; the carbon having thus slowly decomposed the phosphoric 
acid in the laboratory of nature, without great heat, as it does in 
our crucibles in a short time, by the assistance of great heat." 
Likewise, that "there are many instances given by Mr. Anderson, 
and Lord Kaimes, of soils which are said to have been for ages 
uncommonly fertile, without the addition of manures. There are 
plains near the shore in the county of Caithness, and in the 
Hebrides, which are said to consist entirely of shells broken into 
very small particles, without almost any mixture of soil. Now, 
the soil of an extensive county called Lincoln Heath, I ob- 
served, some years ago, to consist, in a great degree, of pow- 
dered limestone, which, like the Ketton limestone, appeared in 
small round particles, which I suppose had, in remote times, been 
dissolved in water, and again precipitated ; which shows a probable 
difference between this lime, and recent shells, in respect to their 
antiquity, and, consequently, that the former must certainly contain 



6 

much of the original phosphoric acid, and the latter only carbonic 
acid. And as Lincoln Heath was then esteemed a very unproduc- 
tive soil, there is reason to infer that the phosphoric acid in recent 
shells, is of greatly more service to agriculture, than the carbonic 
acid of alluvial limestone, or than calcined lime alone. Hence it 
is probable that a greater quantity of phosphoric acid may exist in 
some marls fiian others, as well as in some limestones; thus, the 
appearance of recent shells exists in the lime near Loughborough, 
in Leicestershire, and in some marls called shell-marls ; which 
must, therefore, probably contain much more phosphoric acid, so as 
almost to resemble the bones of animals ; and may thus be more 
friendly to vegetation." This gentleman also observes, " an union 
of phosphoric acid only with lime, has lately been found to compose 
whole mountains in Spain, and is now termed phosphate ot lime, 
resembling bone ashes." * 

From this reasoning it would appear that Doctor Darwin believed 
"the immense quantity of limestone in the world was originally 
formed from the shells of sub-marine animals," and that it had, 
*• during a long lapse of time, lost more or less of its original phos- 
phoric acid : the carbon having slowly decomposed the phosphoric 
acid." From his remarks on the Lincoln Heath limestone, it 
would seem he also believed that the carbonic acid in process of 
time decomposed all the phosphoric acid, and took full possession 
of the calcareous earth; and that "the phosphoric acid in recent 
shells, is of greatly more service to agriculture, than the carbonic 
acid, alluvial limestone, or than calcined lime alone." Also, that 
some marls contain " much phosphoric acid, so as almost to resem- 
ble the birnes of Jinimals." 

Sir Humphrey Davy tells us, " the bones of an ox are composed 

Of decomposable animal matter, . . 51 parts 

Phospiiate of lime, .... 37.7 

Carbonate of lime, . . . .10 

Phosphate of magnesia, . . . .1.3 

100 "* 



The bones of several other animals mentioned by him, do not 
contain as great a proportion of decomposable animal matter as 
the bones of an ox ; but he says, "the bones of the carp contain 50 
parts of decomposable animal matter, 45 phosphate of lime, and 5 
of carbonate of lime; red coral 46.5 of animal matter, and 53.5 
carbonate of lime ; articulated coraline, 51 of animal matter, and 49 
carbonate of lime ; white coral, equal parts of animal matter and 
carbonate of lime ;" and that " the sponges also afford gelatine." ^ 

Of the different proportions of decomposable animal matter, in 



* See his Philosophy, from page 207 to page 212. 

f See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 290. + Idem, page 293. 



the different shells of which limestone is formed, I know nothing. 
It however seems probable that, on an average, they contain quite 
as much as do the bones of the animals who reside on the earth : 
consequently, that they aftbrd much food for plants ; and that the 
nutriment contained in tliem, is more or less valuable as the shells 
may happen to be more or less recent. Still, after the shells have 
lost much animal matter, the phosphorie acid contained in them, 
" may be of greatly more service to agriculture, than the carbonic 
acid of alluvial limestone." It may act more effectually on the 
animal matter contained in the shells, and also in the soil, until all 
this matter be gradually exhausted. 

After this has been done, the phosphoric acid, fully combined 
with the calcareous matter contained in the shells, will form a 
phosphate of lime, which, being " soluble in water containing any 
acid," may still continue to be "more friendly to vegetation, than 
the carbonic acid of the alluvial limestone." * Although it has 
been proved that the carbonate of lime is slowly dissolved by 
water alone, and it would seem that water containing any acid 
will act more powerfully on it than water only, still it may not be 
as readily decomposed by any acid found in the soil, as is the 
phosphate of lime. The phosphoric acid combined with lime, may 
also form a much more powerful compound, than the carbonic acid 
when combined with the same substance, as does the sulphuric 
acid, where its union with lime forms gypsum. But be this as it 
may, 1 trust it will hereafter clearly appear, that each of these 
combinations when fully formed, has receded or departed so very 
far from the original nutritive matters that compose a considerable 
proportion of animals and plants, (and which alone can furnish 
nutriment for other plants and animals,) that but little, if any, 
nutritious matter can be contained in them. Now, if these very 
simple and obvious facts had been sufficiently considered, a proper 
line of distinction would have been long since drawn between the 
manures that enrich the soil, and those which, by exciting the ani- 
mal and vegetable matter contained in it to a hasty and unnatural 
decomposition, exhaust the land. 

Oysters abound in many of our rivers and creeks ; and large fields 
near to them have been covered very deeply with the shells of this 
fish, by the Indians who formerly inhabited those parts. Time, 
with the decay of animal and vegetable matters, and perhaps of 
some parts of the shells, had intermixed a small portion of dark 
looking soil with them. Many of tlie shells were broken into 
pieces, but not generally very small; and many seemed to retain 
nearly their original size; so much so, that, after being riddled, 
they were burnt, and made excellent lime. These lands (so far as 
my observation extended,) were far less exhausted by perpetual 

• It would seem that finely powdered fresh oyster shells would be very valu- 
able manure, and that much of it might be readily manufactured in our larg'e 
sea-port towns. 



8 

ploughing and cropping, than other grounds which appeared to have 
been originally of the same description, but not covered with 
shells.* No question but they will continue to be fertile, until after 
the animal matter contained in the shells, and also the enriching 
matters fn the little soil intermixed with them, have been too much 
exhausted to produce this effect. After this, they will, like •• Lin- 
coln Heath, become very unproductive ;" for neither the phosphate 
nor the carbonate of lime, will find sufficient enriching matter to 
act upon. 

The earthy texture of some soils, causes them to be more favour- 
able to the growth of some plants than others ; still, practice and 
observation, without the aid of chemistry, determine that every 
soil, be its earthy texture what it may, furnishes all the ingredients 
necessary to perfect any of the plants grown by us, provided a 
sufficiency of animal and vegetable matter be found in it; unless 
the grounds be too wet, or other causes equally unfriendly to the 
growth of the plants, which are esteemed most valuable by us, 
obtain. We are, however, highly indebted to chemistry, as this 
science has better explained the ways and means by which these 
ingredients are introduced, than could be done by practice and 
observation alone. Of the means by which a sufficiency of lime is 
introduced, we are told by Dr. Darwin, that " Fourcroy believes, 
that the ashes of burnt vegetables which have been supposed to 
consist of earth or clay, when the fixed alkali is washed from them, 
are principally calcareous phosphorus, like those of animal bones ; 
the same is asserted by Lord Dundonald, in his Connection of Agri- 
cultural Chemistry, p. 25, who calls the insoluble parts of vegetable 
ashes, a phosphate of lime."t Sir H. Davy tells us, " Phosphate of 
lime is a combination of phosphoric acid and lime, one proportion 
of each. It is a compound insoluble in pure water, but soluble in 
water containing any acid matter. It forms the greatest part of 
calcined bones ; it exists in most excrementitious substances, and is 
found both in the straw and grain of wheat, barley, oats, and rye, 
and likewise in beans, peas, and tares. It exists in some places in 
these islands, native, but only in very small quantities. Phosphate 
of lime is generally conveyed to the land, in the composition of 
other manure.'-^: He also says, " calcareous earth is found in the 
ashes of most plants."§ Likewise, that " the earths found in plants 
are four : silica, pure clay, lime, and magnesia. They are procured 
by incineration. The lime is usually combined with the carbonic 
acid. This substance and silica are more common m the vegetable 
kingdom than magnesia, and magnesia more common than clay."|| 

* More than twenty years have elapsed since I had an opportunity of exa- 
mining those soils ; at that time they were subjected to a system of perpetual 
ploughing and cropping. 

f See his Philosophy, page 213. 

:f See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 336'. § Idem, page 317. 

f! Idem, page 113. 



Consequently, the fermentation and decay of these plants, together 
•with that of the animalcula, and the dung made by them, and the 
larger animals who subsisted on the vegetation grown on ihe 
grounds, furnish as much lime as is necessarily used in the struc- 
ture of succeeding plants and animals. Especially as the annual 
renovation of the shells of some animals seems to determine, that 
the vessels of animals have the power of increasing by secretion 
the quantity of calcareous matter, when existing circumstances re- 
quire this to be done. That plants have the same power, also seems 
evident, as some of them store up in their cells, vessels and fruit, 
nutritious food for man and other animals, while others gather a 
fatal and deadly poison ; although they may grow so near to each 
other, that it is evident each had free access to the same, and, 
(seemingly,) no other matters, than those from which these very dif- 
ferent products were elaborated. 

Still the proper application of lime by the cultivator is, in many 
cases, no less useful : it will excite a thin soil to a hasty and unna- 
tural fertility. This will enable him the more speedily to enrich it 
by that part of the greatly increased vegetation, which he may rea- 
dily spare, and very profitably apply to this invaluable purpose. 

But as'no substances, except those parts of animals and vegetables, 
that may be decomposed by the natural processes of fermentation and 
putrefaction, furnish any nutriment for plants, lime in its caustic 
state ought to be very cautiously used. As should also, every other 
powerfully corrosive substance, especially fire. 

It must be highly injurious to the interests of agriculture, either 
hastily to consume, or more slowly to corrode, or in any other way, 
expose those nutritive matters to useless waste. 

The economy of nature in her management of lime, where calca- 
reous matter greatly abounds, ought to teach us the moderate appli- 
cation of this substance, after it has been rendered caustic by cal- 
cination. If the acids formed in some plants, together with the acids 
formed by the decomposition of all the fresh animal and vegetable 
matter, existing in or upon the soil, were to accumulate in quantity, 
and also in strength, sufiicient speedily to decompose the carbonate 
of lime in large quantities, the effects produced by so much corrosive 
matter might prove very injurious to vegetation It has, however, been 
wisely ordered that the portion of this powerful matter brought into 
active use, through the medium of the acids, or by other means, should 
be so circumscribed, that vegetation is not injured by it. Perhaps 
this simple, but wise and truly interesting management of nature, 
may also hereafter teach us, that it would be better, at least in many 
cases, to use the carbonate, instead of calcined lime, and depend, 
as she does, on the acids formed in the soil, to decompose the carbo- 
nate of lime in suflBcient or proper quantities, to excite and pro- 
mote vegetation : especially, as after the surface of the limestone 
has been considerably increased by pulverization, it may act as 
effectually as does marl, after its parts have been minutely divided 



10 

by exposure to the atmosphere ; also, prove quite as lasting, provid- 
ed the quantity of pure calcareous matter in either case be equal. 

It will also be recollected, that what happens when sheep arc 
washed in water impregnated with the carbonate of lime, proves 
that this substaiice decomposes oily matters. Now as its action on 
these matters found in the soil, will be much less powerfully corro- 
sive, than that oflime rendered very caustic by calcination, less in- 
jury, and much more good, is to be expected from the milder action 
of the carbonate of lime. 

It should also be remembered, that when plants are decomposed, 
they afford " gum or mucilage, albumen, gluten, wax, resin, and 
many other substances."* It seems quite as probable that the 
carbonate of lime will act on some of them as effectually, as actual 
practice has proved it to act, on the oily matters, composing a part 
of the compound, forming the yolk of the wool on the body of a 
sheep. In fact, so little is known of the action of the carbonate of 
lime, on the various substances found in the soil, and so many 
absurd and contradictory theories, have appeared on this subject, 
that but little information is to be gathered respecting it; except 
from the rational conclusions that may be fairly drawn from such 
plain, simple, and well substantiated facts, as accident, practice, 
and observation have made manifest. This being the case, it may 
be useful to remark, that if the water passing through calcareous 
countries, had the power to dissolve and convey the carbonate of 
lime, in much larger quantities than is now generally conveyed by 
it, neither man, nor the inferior animals, could exist in those parts. 

The use of the water from our limestone springs, even in its 
present state, frequently produces injurious effects; especially 
until after the constitution has become habituated to the use of it. 

This apparent care for the preservation of animals in calcareous 
countries, seems to strengthen the opinion, that nature had been 
careful to make equal provision for the well-being of plants, 
growing on soils of this description, by ordering that the carbonate 
oflime, should not be decomposed in quantities sufficient to injure 
vegetation, even where this substance most plentifully prevailed. 

It has not only been wisely ordered that putrescent animal and 
vegetable matter, should afford the proper nutriment for plants, 
but also that even those parts of animals and vegetables, which 
afford no nutritious matter, but were found necessary to form and 
consolidate the structures of animals and plants, should, the most 
part of them, be employed in exciting vegetation, and also assisting 
in preparing the nutritive matters, on which plants live 

The alkalies, phosphate and carbonate of lime, appear to be the 
most extensively employed by nature, in this way, as the structures 
of plants seem to furnish larger quantities of these, than many 

• See Sir H. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chera. page 73. 



11 

other substances, which are likewise employed by her, in the same 
way.* 

Dr. Darwin and others, appear to believe that all the calcareous 
matter existing in the world, is of animal origin. It seems evident 
from the shells which are found mixed throughout large bodies of 
it, that much lime must have accumulated in this way. Still, lime, 
as well as some other substances found in plants and animals, may 
have no more claim to animal origin, in the full sense of those 
words, than has the silica or alumina, that is, the pure sand or 
clay found in them, or even the water that forms a considerable 
part of the bodies of plants and animals 

But in whatever way, calcareous matter may have been first 
made to exist in the world, it would appear that we are principally 
indebted to sub-marine animals for the large bodies of lime, known 
to be of animal origin. f 

If this matter had accumulated from the death and decay of 
the animals and plants that had been calculated to live on the 
earth, in much greater quantities than nature regularly employed 
for the use of succeeding generations of animals and plants, it is 
reasonable to believe that all soils would have long since become, 
what is generally termed calcareous. Whereas we see extensive 
tracts of country, that are at this time otherwise, and seem likely 
to remain so, as long as nature is permitted to pursue her present 
course in the management of them. 

• See several of these substances enumerated by Sir H. Davy in his Lee. on 
Agr. Chem. page 114. 

t It would however appear that this is only to be known by the shells mixed 
with it. 



CHAPTER 11. 



Tlie theory of the alkalies, and various saJine substances, considered ; also, 
that of g'ypsum, as established by long and very extensive practical obser- 
vation. 

Sir H. Davy tells us, " The chemistry of the manures which act 
in small quantities, such as gypsum, alkalies, and various saline 
substances, has, hitherto, been exceedingly obscure. It has been 
generally supposed these materials act in vegetation in the same 
manner as condiments or stimulants in animal economy, and that 
they render the common food more nutritive. However, it seems 
a much more probable idea, that they are actually a part of the true 
food of plants, and that they supply a kind of matter to the vegeta- 
ble fibre which is analogous to the bony matter in animal struc- 
ture."* 

The bony matter in animal structure partakes largely of lime, 
and yet that substance is not considered a part of the true food of 
animals. As lime, however, seems to exist in all animated nature, 
the food of animals may supply a sufficiency of that substance to 
answer every purpose designed by nature. Thus, the hen, when 
running at large, where, on superficial examination, no calcareous 
matter is found, daily supplies as much of it as is used in the form- 
ation of the shell of her egg. The structure of some shellfish, 
snails, &c. seems to require much more lime in proportion to their 
size than many other animals; still it appears that nature has so 
organized them, that a sufficiency of this matter is evolved to form 
their structures in every situation in which they exist. This gen- 
tleman elsewhere observes, that " the general tendency of the alka- 
lies is to give solubility to vegetable matters ; and in this way they 
may render carbonaceous and other substances capable of being 
taken up by the tubes in the radical fibres of plants." Likewise, that 
" the same reasoning will apply to the operation of the pure mineral 
alkali as to the vegetable alkali;" and that " salt in small quanti- 
ties assists the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter."! 

Now, if this very correct reasoning be admitted, I cannot see 
why they may not still be considered stimulating manures, or why 
he should assert, that «' the chemistry of those manures had hither- 
to been exceedingly obscure,^^ when, on the contrary, it clearly 
appears that his theoi'y involves the subject in far greater obscurity 
than that in which he found it. However, as il by far too often hap- 

* See his Lee, on Agr. Chem. pages 18 and 19. 
t Idem, pages 337 and 338. 



13 

pens, this gentleman in another part of his book, and when, as I 
suppose, he had forgotten what he had just before asserted, says, 
•' The theory of the operation of alkaline substances, is one of the 
parts of the chemistry of agriculture most simple and distinct. 
They are found in all plants, and therefore may be regarded as 
among their essential ingredients. From their powers of combi- 
nation likewise, they may be useful in introducing various princi- 
ples into the sap of vegetables which may be subservient to their 
nourishment."* 

It is very justly observed by Sir H. Davy, that " the doctrine of 
definite combinations will assist us in gaining just views respecting 
the composition of plants and the economy of the vegetable king- 
dom; but the same accuracy of weight and measure, the same sta- 
tistical results which depend upon the uniformity of the laws that 
govern dead matter, cannot be expected in the operations where 
the powers of life are concerned, and where a diversity of organs 
and functions exists. The classes of definite inorganic bodies, even 
if we include all the crystalline arrangements of the mineral king- 
dom, are few compared with the forms and substances belonging to 
animated nature. Life gives a peculiar character to all its produc- 
tions : the power of attraction and repulsion, combination and de- 
composition, are subservient to it. A few elements, by the diver- 
sity of their arrangement, are made to form the most different sub- 
stances ; and similar substances are produced from compounds, 
which, when superficially examined, appear entirely different.''^ 
But, notwithstanding these very correct sentiments, he seems to 
estimate the usefulness of gypsum as a manure, by the quantity 
which he finds of it in plants. 

He observes, that " those plants which seem most benefited by 
its application, are plants which always afford it on analysis. Clo- 
ver, and most of the artificial grasses, contain it ; but it exists in 
very minute quantity only in barley, wheat, and turnips."| He, 
however, says, in another place, " it is not taken up in corn crops, 
or crops of peas and beans ; but where lands are exclusively de- 
voted to pasturage and hay, it will be continually consumed."§ Here 
again, this gentleman seems to contradict himself; for, agreeably 
to his theory, it would be difficult to determine how gypsum exists 
even in very minute quantities only in barley and wheat, if it is not 
taken up in corn crops, for barley and wheat are called corn crops 
by every farmer in England. 

But if gypsum is to be considered a part of the true food of 
plants, because it is found in them, and more especially so, for those 
plants in which it may happen most plentifully to exist, why may 
not siliceous earth be also considered a part of the true food of 
plants, especially for the reeds, grasses, canes, wheat, and other 
plants having hollow stems, as Sir H. found much of this substance 

• See his Lee. on A^, Chem. p. 20. + Idem, p. 19, 
fldem, p. 5i and 54. § Idem, p. 333, 



14 

in the cuticle or epidermis which covers the bark of plants of this 
description ? But in place of considering the siliceous earths a 
part of the true food of those plants, he very wisely observes, 
" The siliceous epidermis serves as a support, protects the bark 
from the action of insects, and seems to perform a part in the eco- 
nomy of these feeble vegetable tribes, similar to that performed ia 
the animal kingdom by the shell of the crustaceous insects."* 

It is well known in this country, where gypsum has been long 
extensively and very successfully used, that it is a valuable manure 
for both barley and wheat, and likewise for peas and beans. Not- 
withstanding this gentleman says, that, " in general, cultivated soils 
contain a sufficiency of this substance for the use of the grasses,"! 
it is as well known in Pennsylvania as any other fact, that but very 
few soils of this description contain a sufficiency of gypsum to 
produce even tolerable crops of the grasses; and that when this 
substance is strewed over even very thin soils, they are excited to 
produce luxuriant crops of red clover. It is also equally as well 
known, that the fermentation and decomposition which take place 
in soils that have been highly enriched with animal and vegetable 
matter, either by nature or art, furnish a sufficiency of nutriment 
for the grasses, as well as other plants, without being manured with 
gypsum ; of consequence, but little, if any perceptible good is gene- 
rally derived by manuring such soils with that substance. Where 
enough of vegetable and animal matter exists to excite a sufficient 
decomposition of nutritious matters, it is not only useless but also 
very wasteful to increase the fermentation and decomposition of 
these invaluable substances, by the use of stimulating manures of 
any kind. 

Agreeably to Sir H. Davy's estimate, " gypsum is composed of 55 
parts of lime and 75 parts of sulphuric acid," and "is soluble in 
about 500 times its weight of cold water, and is more soluble in 
hot water."! If the soil and atmosphere be dry when gypsum 
is strewed it remains inert, but so soon as they become sufficiently 
moist and warm, it gradually dissolves, and its powerful efifect on 
vegetation is soon seen. It is generally believed, sulphuric acid in 
this compound is the principal promoter of vegetation, as sulphur 
alone,§ and also the substances in which it is found, seem to produce 
similar effects on vegetation. It should however be remarked, that 
in the case where it was supposed that sulphur alone was used as 
manure, ashes were mixed with it to render the sowing easy, and 
ashes are in themselves a powerfully stimulating manure A black 
sulphuric substance, which abounds in New Jersey, has proved to 
be a very valuable manure. It was analyzed by Dr, Seybert, and 
found to be a ferruginous clay.jj Sir H. Davy says, that '' some inte- 

* See his Lee on Agr. Chem. pages 56 and 57. 
I Idem, page 19. ^ Idem, i>age 329. 

§ See vol. ii. Mem. Phil. Ag^. Soc page 207. 
I) See vol. i, Mem. Fhil. Agr. Soc. pages 9J and 94. 



15 

resting documents on the use of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, 
which is a salt produced from peat in Bedfordshire, have been laid 
before the board by Dr. Pearson ; and I have witnessed the fertiliz- 
ing effects of a ferruginous water used for irrigating a grass mea- 
dow made by the Duke of Manchester; an account of the produce of 
which, hns been published by the board of agriculture. I have no 
doubt but the peat salt and vitriolic water acted chiefly by producing 
gypsum." He also says, "vitriolic impregnations in soils where 
there is no calcareous matter, as in a soil in Lincolnshire, to which I 
referred in the fourth lecture, are injurious ; but it is probably in 
consequence of their supplying an excess of ferruginous matter to 
the sap."* 

This is saying no more than is said of lime, or any other corrosive 
substance, when too great a quantity is used, and no question but 
ferruginous matter will be equally fertilizing, where, on superficial 
examination, no calcareous matter is found, provided an excess 
of it be not applied ; although much greater quantities of it will not 
injure vegetation in calcareous soils, or even in grounds of a con- 
trary description, if a sufficiency of lime be used. 

The sulphate of barytes,t as well as the pyrites,^ are also very 
valuable manures ; and as sulphurets are powerful solvents of 
carbonaceous substances, it would seem that gypsum assists the 
decomposition of the animal and vegetable substances found in 
the soil. 

The powerfully fertilizing property of the sulphuric acid appears 
to be well established ; still it seems reasonable to believe, that it 
is its combination with lime, that causes the surprising effects which 
are produced by gypsum. Effects equally as astonishing have been 
produced by other combinations ;§ and they only cease to be 
equally wonderful to the chemist and man of science, in whose 
laboratories the causes which produce the effects are more readily 
seen, than in the great laboratory of nature, where it is probable, 
that hidden and combining causes will forever, more or less, defeat 
the experiments of the wisest chemists under the sun : especially 
when these experiments are not confined to subjects, which have 
been rendered familiar by long practical observation. 

Sir H. Davy says, " It has been said, that gypsum assists the 
putrefaction of animal substances, and the decomposition of manure, 
1 have tried some experiments on this subject which are contradic- 
tory to the notion. I mixed some minced veal, with about one 
hundredth part of its weight of gypsum, and exposed some veal 
without gypsum under the same circumstances; there was no 
difference in the time when they began to putrefy, and the process 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 334 and 335. 
t See vol. iii. Mem Phil. Agr. Soc. page 120. 
+ See vol. i same work, page 33, appendix. 

§ The effects produced by the compound which fonns gunpo>yder are equal- 
ly surprising. 



16 

seemeil to be most rapid in the case in which there was no gypsum 
present. I made other similar mixtures, employing in some cases 
smaller quantities of gypsum ; and 1 used pigeon's dung, in one 
instance, instead of flesh, and with precisely similar results. It 
certainly in no case increased the rapidity of putrefaction. Though 
it is not generally known, yet a series of experiments has been 
carried on, for a great length of time in this country, upon the 
operation of gypsum as a manure."* 

These experiments seem to have been predicated on what is 
said by Judge Peters, of the decomposition effected in dung heaps, 
by the use of gypsum. I do not recollect, that any other person 
has written on using plaster in this way. 

Gypsum may favour the decomposition of animal and vegetable 
matters, when mixed and heaped up with them ; but neither Mr. 
Peters's compost heaps, nor Sir Humphrey's smaller experiments 
were calculated to determine the action of gypsum when it is 
spread over or mixed with the soil, or when seeds are rolled in this 
substance, previously to their being sown. 

It is clearly seen in the experiments introduced by the president, 
with a view to refute what Sir Humphrey had advanced on the 
action of gypsum, that no certain information can be gathered 
from them. 

Judge Peters says, " Two years ago, I scoured the ditches of a 
watered meadow; I had a great collection of tussocks, composed of 
aquatic, coarse grasses, and weeds. I composited those materials, 
in two heaps ; one contained sixty-two two horse cart-loads after it 
was rolled down, the other twelve of like loads. In the first I began 
with a layer of tussocks ; then a layer of muck from the stables, in 
a fermenting state ; next a layer of leaves and wood soil, (each 
layer about one foot thick,") until the heap was sufficiently high. 
On each layer, I strewed plaster very little thicker than I should 
have scattered it on the ground. This was done in autumn. In the 
spring I began to throw it over, and mixed with it a quantity of) 
slaked lime. I found the heap far advanced in putrefaction; 
so that after being thrown over, it was, in the fall, in the best 
order for top dressing. There was in this heap, not above four 
bushels of plaster used. In the small heap, I employed no muck 
or dung; but formed it of alternate layers of tussocks and leaves, 
intermixed with wood soil. Each layer was plastered, but the 
labourer strewed nearly the like quantity, in the small heap with 
that mixed in the large one. When I came to view it in the spring, 
very little pi'ogress had been made in putrefaction. I was compelled 
to throw it over twice, during the summer. I found it in the fall, 
unfit for use. The plaster was unchanged in many parts of the 
heap : so was a considerable proportion of the leaves and tussocks. 
I suffered it to remain until the last spring; when I found it im- 
perfectly rotted, and much of the plaster unaltered. None of the 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 331 and 332, 



17 

plaster in the other heap was visible ; but the spot on which the 
small heap was spread, was universally whitened with it." 

" Having frequently and successfully rotted down leaves, tus- 
socks and wood soil, plastered lightly, I was surprised at the disap- 
pointment in this instance. 1 cannot account for the circumstance, 
otherwise than by presuming that an overcharge of plaster is a 
quiescent force; that is, it preserves compounds in a state of rest. 
A moderate quantity may be devellent; that is, it assists in des- 
troying a state of combination ; plaster must no doubt, be decompo- 
sed itself, before it acts on other substances. So must be marine 
salt, which is also a chemical compound. The instance I relate, 
reminds me of the fact, and my conclusions from it, mentioned in 
our first volume, p. 174. No more of the plaster will act, than the 
materials, necessary to co-operate with it, require. The balance re- 
mains in its original state of composition, inert and useless."* 

Here this gentleman seems to advance opposing theories: first he 
says, "An overplus of plaster preserves compounds in a state of 
rest; a moderate quantity assists in destroying a state of combi- 
nation." Secondly, " No more plaster will act, than the materials 
necessary to co-operate with it, require ; the rest remains in its ori- 
ginal state of composition, inert and useless." 

It is the " whimsical " and unfounded observations made on the 
action of gypsum, that have caused this substance to be considered 
" whimsical " in its operation. So far as my observation extends, it 
is no more " whimsical" than other stimulating manures. If the 
seasons be so dry or wet as greatly to retard fermentation, or if the 
soil be naturally so wet as to cause the same effect, crops commonly 
suffer. They, however, suffer vastly less, where animal and vegeta- 
ble matters obtain in quantities sufficient to furnish, even under all 
the disadvantages arising from either, a considerable supply of de- 
composed matters for the food of plants. It should be recollected 
that where animal and vegetable matter in an abundance obtains, 
evaporation is greatly retarded in a dry time ; also, that water sinks 
more readily through the texture even of retentive clay soils, when 
the earthy matter is considerably divided by decaying vegetable 
substances ; likewise, that fermentation is greatly promoted by the 
increased quantity of animal and vegetable matters thickly spread 
through a rich soil. 

In fact, plants growing on rich soils, far better resist all the various 
injuries to which vegetation is subjected, than those growing on soils 
of a contrary description ; for although it has been asserted by too 
many, that better crops of red clover have been excited by gypsum on 
poor soils, than by dung on soils of the same description, I nave inva- 
riably witnessed the reverse. Neither can this generally happen, if 
enough of dung be applied to make the soil rich, and the application 
of it so ordered, that fermentation and decomposition will diffuse 

• See vol. ill. Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc, pages 297, 298 and 299. 

c 



18 

the rich nutritive matters contained in it through the soil in proper 
time, and in sufficient quantities to afford an abundance of food for 
the plants growing on it.* 

But to return; if Mr. Peters, had depended on the gypsum to 
effect the decomposition which he wished, why did he also apply 
the slaked lime. And after obtaining all the assistance that is to 
be derived from this powerfully corrosive substance, and also, from 
the exciting properties of the dung taken from his stables in a 
fermenting state, why does he introduce this experiment to sub- 
stantiate the decomposition effected by gypsum when used in this 
way .^ When, in fact, nothing is to be gathered from either of his 
experiments, except that gypsum, aided by nature alone, is incapable 
of perfectly decomposing, in the course of eighteen months, a com- 
post heap, formed of the materials described by him; also, that 
it cannot be certainly known, from what happened in either of the 
heaps, whether gypsum does, or does not, favour the decomposition 
of animal and vegetable matters, when mixed and heaped up in 
bulk with them ; particularly, as it would seem, that without the 
powerful assistance of the lime, the exciting influence of the dung 
alone, would have been sufficient to accomplish the decomposition 
of the larger heap in twelve months; and that nature, without the 
aid of gypsum, might have decomposed the smaller one, as far as 
Mr. Peters represents it to have been done in the time mentioned 
by him, unless indeed, " an overcharge of plaster preserves com- 
pounds in a state of rest," which seems to be as contrary to prac- 
tical observation as it is to what this gentleman also advances, to 
wit : " no more of the plaster will act, than the materials necessary 
to co-operate with it, require." But whether he is correct in saying, 
" the balance remains" (undissolved, and otherwise exactly) " in 
its original state," no practice or observation of mine will determine. 

However, before Sir H. Davy had attempted to controvert the 
theory of the action of gypsum when used for manure, he should 
have recollected that this theory had been founded on long, as well 
as very extensive, and successful practical observation; and that 
his practical information must have been very limited, as this sub- 
stance had been used with but very partial success in England : 
owing either to local and unknown causes, or to an improper system 
of management; also, that the limited compass in which the usual 
practice of chemistry places experiments, is by no means calculated 
to determine the action of gypsum when used as manure. 

He tells us the veal, without gypsum, was exposed under the 
same circumstances, as was that, which had been mixed with this 
substance; but he does not say how either was exposed. It is 

* Stimulating manures have produced wonderful effects, especially when the 
seasons have favoured the operation of them It should, however, be recollected, 
that enough of enriching matter does not exist in a poor soil to enable even 
gypsum to produce effects, any thing like equal to those produced by a suffici- 
ency of enriching substances. 



19 

however probable, in his yard or garden, on plates, or some other 
utensils, calculated to keep the materials, so that they might be 
readily examined. In any case, that was likely to happen, the 
exposure must have been very dissimilar to that which takes place 
in actual practice. The materials used by him, were necessarily 
confined within a very contracted space, when compared with the 
wide scattered scope, in which practice places this substance, in 
contact with the materials brought into action by it : consequently, 
the numerous substances that are known to exist, or to be floating 
in the atmosphere, as well as the unknown cause that may exist 
there, could not have had any thing like the same tree access to 
the materials composing his experiment, as is obtained by actual 
practice ; and for aught we know to the contrary, some of these 
substances may, either separately or combined, act on, or in union, 
with the gypsum, so powerfully, as greatly to promote the action of 
it. 

There are also upon and within the soil, a great variety of sub- 
stances known to us, and perhaps many others, with which we are 
not acquainted. None of these had access to Sir Humphrey's 
experiment; although we do not know, but it may be utterly 
impossible for gypsum to act profitably, in any other way, than in 
conjunction with some or more of them. 

The earth, except when the atmosphere is more fully charged 
with water than it, is continually emitting great quantities of 
moisture, even in a dry time. No question but it conveys, in com- 
bination with it, more or less of the properties of the various sub- 
stances contained in the soil through which the moisture passes. This 
highly interesting part of the economy of nature seems to secure 
a double action of moisture; especially where the soil is shaded 
closely by the plants growing on it. First in the ascent of the exha- 
lations from the ground. Secondly in the descent of this moisture 
in showers, dews, fogs, &c. The first of these operations of mois- 
ture seems to be excluded from Sir Humphrey's experiments. As 
it appears to be progressing, when some of the other sources of 
moisture are suspended, it may be very important to the action of 
gypsum: especially if this substance is not dissolved in less than 
" 500 times its weight of water, unless the water be hot."* 

This gentleman should also have recollected, that when gypsum 
is strewed over the soil, or mixed with it, it is brought into immediate 
contact with animal and vegetable substances, which are generally 
in a progressive state of fermentation and decomposition; also, 

• Burnt limestone 13 very quickly slaked, if a sufficiency of water be poured 
on it. The same however is as effectually, but much more graduallj done by 
the moisture gathered from the atmosphere. May we not therefore i)resurae 
that gypsum is as effectually, (but more gradually) dissolved by the rains, dews, 
&c. as it would be, if immediately immersed in the whole quantity of water, 
necessary to dissolve it ; especially if it be very finely ground, or pulverised, 
«s this greatly increase* the surface, on which the moisture acts. 



20 

that these matters contain a great variety of substances, which 
nature had already been preparing either to nourish, or excite 
vegetation in every possible way that existing circumstances would 
permit: consequently the plaster when strewed over, or mixed with 
the soil, commences its operations under very favourable circum- 
stances, and most probably, in union with some very powerful 
auxiliaries. 

Veal is a substance that naturally becomes putrid with by far 
too great rapidity, to admit of forming any just conclusions of the 
action of gypsum on it. It is doubtful whether the pigeon's dung 
favoured Sir Humphrey's experiments more than did the veal, it 
" readily ferments,"* and being a very rich substance, sinks quickly 
into decay. This gentleman says, that, "after night soil, pigeon's 
dung comes next as to fertilizing power;" also, that, '• it is evident 
that this manure should be applied as new as possible."! 

In fact, unless chance should happen to direct, it will be found 
that the action of gypsum is a difficult question to be determined 
by the usual round of chemical experiment. It would seem that 
Sir Humphrey might have known this full well, from his not being- 
able to obtain from the series of experiments, which he says has 
been carried on for a great length of time in England, any infor- 
mation on this subject, which he considered more important than 
the experiments related above. 

It would appear tiiat rich substances which naturally hasten into 
decay, are the worst that could be selected to determine in any 
way, the action of gypsum. But be this as it may, certain it is, 
I have never observed, that the application of this substance occa- 
sioned any perceptible difference, either in the colour, size, or 
product of any plant, growing on any soil, in which there was a 
sufficiency of animal and vegetable matter, to produce good crops 
of it. The reason seems obvious ; the natural fermentation of 
animal and vegetable matters, where enough of them obtains, supplies 
sufficient nutriment to eifect this purpose; and an excess of nutri- 
tious matter, saying the most that can be said in favour of it, is 
useless. Of consequence, it is only in soils where animal and 
vegetable matters are scattered so thinly, as to retard fermentation 
and decomposition, that the wonder-working powers of gypsum are 
seen. Therefore it is on such soils, that i would advise Sir Hum- 
phrej" Davy, (or any other gentleman who wishes to become well 
acquainted with the action of gypsum,) to try their experiments, 
more especially on soils, that have been considerably exhausted by 
perpetual ploughing and cropping. On grounds of this description, 
the action of gypsum, may be as readily determined through the 
medium of practical observation, as that of any other manure. If 
only the half of one bushel of this wonder-working compound, be 

• See his Lectures on Agr. Chem. page 299. 
t Idem, same page. 



21 

finely pulverised, and evenly strewed over an acre of red clover, 
growing on a soil which is too poor to produce even a tolerable 
growth of this plant, the crop is generally good and sometimes 
luxuriant. No fact is better established than this. It has been 
'the common practice in Pennsylvania with farmers, to leave strips 
through their clover fields, on which none of this substance is 
strewed. In every case, so far as my observation has extended, 
(when the soil was too thin to produce even tolerable crops of red 
clover without the aid of manure,) the plants on the strips where 
no gypsum had been strewed, were small, sallow, and apparently 
starved, while those growing beside them, on the grounds, manured 
with this substance, were large, healthy, and vividly green. 

It is also a well known fact, that if those thin soils be annually 
stimulated by the regular application of gypsum, and the product 
be removed, they soon become so much exhausted as to be incapa- 
ble of producing crops, that are worth mowing. 

It is equally known, that after this sterility takes place, gypsum 
strewed over the soil, (in any quantities, either large or small,) 
produces no more perceptible effect on vegetation, than would do 
the same quantity of sand, or any other earth. 

But if after this sterility takes place, enriching manure be 
applied, the future applications of gypsum will act again in the 
same powerful manner, as they did in the beginning; even if the 
manuring be nothing more than the contents of such a green crop, 
as the fermentation and decomposition of the vegetation found on 
the soil will produce. 

Now if gypsum furnishes food for plants, how does it happen, 
that no quantity of this substance, either great or small, is found 
capable of promoting even tolerable fertility, after the animal and 
vegetable matters contained in the soil, have been exhausted by 
this powerful promoter of vegetation ? 

And how does it happen, that after this sterility has been effected, 
that plaster acts as powerfully as it did in the beginning, so soon aS 
enriching manure has been applied ? 

I would also ask, whether it is even probable that simple calca- 
reous earth, and the sulphuric acid which had been locked up for 
ages in it, can, either separately or combined, furnish any nutritive 
matter for the food of plants? Likewise, if nutritive matter exists 
in this compound, whether it would not be exceedingly difficult to 
believe, that the quantity contained in only half a bushel of gypsum 
could do any perceptible good to so many clover plants, as are 
commonly grown on an acre of ground.'' 

It would, however, seem that Judge Peters 's practice in the use 
of this substance, on soils that were trench-ploughed, furnishes 
sufficient proof to determine that gypsum cannot act, unless it 
finds sufficient animal and vegetable matter in the soil to act upon. 

Some years ago this gentleman trench-ploughed a good deal of 
thin soil ; and if I understand what he has written on that subject 



22 

this was done with a view to make it better ; but as he seems to 
have abandoned the practice, it appears probable that the result 
ha? not been such as he had expected it to be. Be this, however, 
as it may, he discovered, in the course of this practice, that •' plaster 
does not operate till animal or vegetable putrefied substances arc 
restored to trenched soils." Also, that " the corn planted on 
them requires shovelings or dung in the hills, to give activity to the 
plaster."* 

• See vol. i. Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc. page 243. 



CHAPTER III. 



Gypsum, the alkalies and various saline substances, together with other mat- 
ters found in the structure of plants, are highly important in the economy of 
vegetation. Still, stimulating manures should be cautiously and prudently 
used ; especially as every sou is fertile, if a sufficiency of animal and vegeta- 
ble matters exists in it. The economy of nature in the management of our 
forests, glades and pi*airie3 described. The quantity of animal matter consi- 
derably increased by the introduction of innumerable animalcula. Also, the 
extensive usefulness of the plants which are considered useless and injurious 
by too many farmers, and the provision made by nature to spread them over 
exhausted soils, &c. and to accumulate animal matter by the introduction 
of them. 

It is said by Sir Humphrey Davy, that " water and the decom- 
posing animal and vegetable matter existing in the soil, constitute 
the true nourishment of plants."* But as he also says, " It seems 
probable that the manures which act in small quantities, such as 
gypsum, a'kalies, and various saline substances, are actually a part 
of the true food of plants," it is considered proper to observe, that 
although neither gypsum, the alkalies, nor various saline sub- 
stances form any part of " the true nourishment of plants," those 
and other substances are highly important, as they form a part of 
the structure of plants and animals: consequently, the decomposing 
animal and vegetable matter existing in the soil, furnishes these sub- 
stances. In this state they again become highly important to vege- 
tation, not only in forming the structure of succeeding generations 
of plants, for the greater part of these substances also assist in ex- 
citing vegetation, and in preparing the nutritious matters on which 
plants live. In fact, it would seem that these substances are the 
natural condiments, in the animal, as well as in the vegetable eco- 
nomy. Man, as well as the inferior animals, is quite as healthy 
and vigorous, and perhaps more so, where he does not obtain any 
other stimulants than those contained in the food used by him. 

The quantity of the different substances found in vegetation, de- 
pends greatly on the nature and properties of the plants; also, on 
the property of the soil, and other local causes existing where the 
plants grow. Still, all soils that have been sufficiently enriched 
with animal and vegetable matter, either by nature or art, furnish 
enough of nutriment, as weU as the necessary ingredients to form 
the structure of plants, and excite vegetation, &c. so that luxuriant 
crops are grown on them. 



See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 184. 



24 

Now this fact is evident, and the practice of ages determineb, 
that land is impoverished in proportion as the animal and vegetable 
matter contained in the soil is destroyed, by severe cropping, or in 
any other way; and that although gypsum, lime, and other stimu- 
lating manures, will, for a time, increase the fertility of such im- 
poverished soils, yet the continued application of these substances 
is so far from enriching the soil, that it hastens the sterility of it, 
unless the evil be prevented by a timely introduction of animal and 
vegetable matter. It certainly then behoves the farmer to use the 
stimulating manures cautiously and prudently, and to take every 
rational measure to accumulate animal and vegetable matter ; also, 
to be careful not to engage in any of those practices, that devote 
these substances either to immediate destruction, or to a more gra- 
dual but useless waste. 

If the manures which are generally called stimulating, " actually 
afford a part of the true food of plants," this part must be very in- 
considerable, as no given quantity of these manures, either sepa- 
rately or combined, will preserve the fertility of any soil. 

Long practice in our gardens also demonstrates, that a moderate 
and regular application of animal and vegetable manure, will not 
only keep up, but likewise increase the fertility of the soil, when 
subjected to very severe annual cropping. 

Our towns and villages have been built where chance directs, or 
convenience dictates ; still the gardens, so far as my observation 
extends, produce luxuriantly ; although no other means are gene- 
rally used, either to correct offending matter, or enrich the soil, but 
stable manure, unless it be to drain the grountls if they happen to 
be too wet. The same result has also followed the application of 
the same kind of manure, in every field where I have known it 
applied in quantity sufficient to produce the same effect- 
But the value of animal and vegetable matter is best seen in our 
lonely forests, where neither art nor ignorance has materially in- 
terfered, with the simple but wise economy of nature. Every where 
that vegetation can exist, the ground is covered with it. The 
largest trees the soil and climate are capable of producing, first 
claim our attention. These seem to be placed at proper, though 
not at regular distances apart. If two or more of them happen to 
grow up in contact, or nearly so, more room is allotted for their 
growth. The space between the larger trees is occupied by some 
smaller ones, shrubs, and annual plants. The whole gradually de- 
scending in size, from the largest trees to the mosses. So careful 
is nature to spread vegetation, wherever it can be done, that we 
often see a variety of plants growing on the trunks of the fallen 
timber, after the sap-wood has become sufficiently decayed to admit 
vegetation. As these trunks sink into decay, the plants sink with 
them, and take root in the earth. 

When the fallen timber on which the plants grow, happens to be 
of very durable wood, we sometimes see large trees standing upon 



25 

the trunks of large fallen timber. Their roots having passed down 
on each side of the trunk, through the rotten sap-wood, find their 
waj into the soil, and become firmly established in it. The fallen 
leaves of each year form a compact covering over the leaves, and 
much of the other vegetation that had fallen before. This prevents 
the growth of such grasses as would injure nature's design, as they 
do in our orchards. This covering is skreened during winter by 
the stems and branches of the plants. In the summer, when the 
sun and the winds would prove more injurious to the manure under 
it, an additional and much more effectual skreen is formed by the 
foliage of the plants. The fermentation and decomposition that 
take place within this thick body of manure, furnish nutriment 
for t^'e plants, and enrich the grounds ; and also minutely divide 
and keep the soil more open and mellow for the ready admission 
of their roots, than could be effected by the general mode of culti- 
vation pursued in fields. Here I wish the. reader to recollect, and 
attentively consider, that this is done without rending and wounding 
the roots of the plants, or forming; injurious ridges or mounds be- 
side or around them, or making furrows to run off the moisture 
necessary to their growth. 

When age, disease, tornadoes, or any other cause destroys the 
timber, and nature is suffered to repair the damage, another growth 
of plants quickly appears. These (ire so thickly set on the ground, 
that all vegetation injurious to thefm is destroyed by their shade. 
The most thrifty plants outtop ahd gradually destroy, by theii- 
shade, and the nutriment drawn from the soil, the more feeble ones. 
The shade formed by the upper branches of the surviving trees, 
destroys the supernumerary branches beneath them, until nature 
has gradually, pruned the trunks of the timber so effectually, that 
an injurious limb does not appear to a very great height. Their 
lofty tops overspread the tops of the smaller trees, shrubs, and 
other plants, which nature had calculated to giow, and flourish 
luxuriantly under the shade of their lofty superiors. 

The regular fall of the foliage, together with that of the branches, 
and the bodies of the trees and other plants, affords a prodigious 
mass of decaying vegetation. The larger animals, reptiles, &c. com- 
mon to the country, together with the feathered tribes find sufficient 
food and shelter here. Every leaf and every crevice in the barker 
elsewhere, is thickly peopled. Even the decayitig animal and vege- 
table matter, which is so disgusting to some animals, teems with ani- 
malcula calculated to fare sumptuously on it. The interior of the soil 
also affords living and decaying vegetation, on which innumerable 
worms and other animalcula live voluptuously. It is also probable 
that incalculable tribes of animalcula which are so small as to elude 
our sight, live plentifully on the dead carcasses, and on the scraps 
and crumbs left by the large ones: added to this, the quantity of 
animal matter is prodigiously increased, by the creation of animals 
of every size, whose existence either in part or altogether depends on 
preying on others. The existence of the smaller animals is generally 



26 

very limited. Those short lived generations multiply fast, succeeding; 
each other in rapid progression. While they live, the remains of 
their food are returned to the soil in valuable manure. When they 
die their carcasses add greatly to the amount. We may form some 
idea of the quantities of this manure, by observing it thickly spread on 
the bare ground or pavement in yards under the trees. That of the 
larger insects which inhabit the tree, is readily seen. Although 
the manure dropped by the smaller ones, may elude superficial ob- 
servation, it is equally valuable in porportion to the amount. The 
quantity and quality of the manure furnished by animalcula,like that 
from other animals, must greatly depend on the quantity of food, and 
the quality of the substances eaten by them. But nature has so or- 
dered the multiplication of the different kinds of animals, that they 
seldom seriously infringe on the sustenance of each other. There- 
fore, generally', all have an abundant supply. She sometimes, 
however, suffers some one tribe of them to increase in such vast 
numbers, that the earth seems covered by them, and every green 
thing which is agreeable to their taste is destroyed. This may be 
done to convince us that numbers will readily compensate for defi- 
ciency of size. Be this, however, as it may, although in general the 
animal matter derived from any one single tribe of animalcula may 
be inconsiderable, still the whole combined form a mighty mass of 
it. When this is added to that supplied by the larger animals, it 
is fully adequate to all the purposes which nature had designed to 
be accomplished by it. 

It was certainly a very wise provision of nature, to cause the 
greater part of this matter to exist in small bodies. This has vastly in- 
creased the quantity, and promoted the ready and effectual applica- 
tion of it. If the whole or the greater part of this prodigious bulk 
of animal matter, had been made to exist in the larger animals, 
they could not have been supported; neither, could the manure 
furnished by them have been so intimately blended with the soil, as 
is the vegetable matter, which we all see has been made to exist in 
plants, that spread over and cover the surface of the habitable 
parts of the earth. 

Animal and vegetable matters afford a very similar food for 
plants. Yet the former in proportion to quantity, furnish vastly 
more nutriment for them, and being much sooner decomposed, the 
fermentation of vegetable substances is greatly accelerated, when 
animal matter is mixed with them. Therefore, nowithstanding earth, 
air, light, heat, moisture and vegetable matter are sufficient to per- 
fect vegetation, still the combination of animal with vegetable mat- 
ter, greatly facilitates the growth of plants. The fertilizing effect? 
of this perfect system of economy, is equally as clearly seen in our 
glades and prairies, as in our forests, v/here nature is suffered to pur- 
sue her own course. 

But when civilized man encroaches on either, a new order of 
things takes place ; the living as well as the dead vegetation found 
in his way is destroyed and the grounds are cultivated. By these 



27 

lueans, by far the greater part of the animalcula within, as well as 
upon the soil are destroyed. Still when the agriculturist keeps the 
grounds well stored with the grasses, and has a sufficiency of domes- 
ticated animals to eat this vegetation, and carefully saves and ju- 
diciously applies the manure afforded by them, nature is assisted 
by art, and the fertility of the soil is considerably increased. 

The back woods farmer, however, too generally continues plough- 
ing, and severe cropping, with but little attention to grass or live 
stock, and but too seldom returns to the soil, even the little manure 
that is made by his scanty stock of cattle, until the land is so 
much exhausted, that scarcely a sufficiency of grass is found oti 
his fields, to support a respectable tribe of grasshoppers alone. 

Far less is to be expected from animalcula manure, after the 
grounds have been cleared from the vegetation grown on them by 
nature; still much food is provided for them in the grasses, where 
a proper system of husbandry is practised. I'hey multiply with 
great rapidity both within and upon grass grounds. When the lay 
is cultivated they are generally destroyed, and the animal manure 
introduced by them, is far from being inconsiderable. Yet farmers 
seldom notice this very useful part of the creation, except with 
evident marks of abhorrence or detestation, when their persons, 
crops, or live stock, are annoyed by them. Although it would 
appear at least probable, that neither man, nor the domesticated 
animals in which he seems to be more immediately interested, could 
have existed in any thing like the same numbers, or have been 
supplied with an abundance of nutriment, if animalcula had not 
been created. The same may be said of weeds, notwithstanding 
slovenly farmers complain still more loudly of the injury done by 
them.i 

ITTs true, that very serious injury is sometimes done by animal- 
cula. It is, however, probable, that even this seeming evil is a leal 
advantage. It often excites the farmer to a far better system of 
management. 

Thus the turnip fly urges him to manure his grounds, and to 
put them in a high state of cultivation, that the plants, by quickly 
attaining their rough leaves, may escape the destructive depreda- 
tion of this insect. 

To avoid the ruinous injury done by the Hessian fly, farmers 
were compelled to sow late ; but finding that late seeding in a thin 
soil, subjected the wheat plants to great injury in the winter and 
early part of the spring ; also, that if the main shoots of the plants 
were destroyed by the fly, but little was to be expected from the 
later and weaker shoots when the soil was poor, they were obliged 
to manure their grounds. Now one corner of a field produces 
more wheat, than was obtained from the whole of it, previously to 
the depredations committed by this insect, 

^^^e plants generally called weeds are very numerous, while 
ihose plants which are cultivated by us are few; notwithstanding 
weeds are injurious to our crops, and we are compelled to wage a 



28 

perpetual war against them, it is probable that some of them would 
be equally' :is valuable to us, as our favounte plants, if thev were 
as well known No question but all of tlis-m are either dirpcdv or 
indirectly calculated to promote the interest of man. They arc 
very beneficial where a bad system of farming is pursued. While 
the ground retains tolerable fertility they grow plentifully, and no 
doubt but they return to the soil much fertilizing matter, for many 
of them are strong and vigorous plants. They also furni-h food 
for the animalcula, that had been calculated to live and fai'^enon 
them. In this way a portion of animal matter, is likewise returned 
to the soil. Notwithstanding the too general mode of cultivation 
is calculated to destroy a great part of the animal and vegetable 
matter obtained in this way, still enough remains to increase the 
crops, and to procrastinate that debility, which is so clearly seen 
in worn out soils, by the growth of the weak and meager grasses 
and weeds, which are thinly scattere<l over them. However, where 
the agriculturist pursues a rational system of husbandry, it be- 
comes necessary for him to extirpate weeds ; as the grasses are 
far better than a pronuscuous growth of them. If the former be 
used for no other purpose, than that of ploughing them under the 
soil, or suffering them to rot on it; and if they be consumed by 
domesticated animals, their value is much increased. 

But the plants which are called weeds by us, are more especially 
and extensively useful, where nature acts uncontrolled by man. 
The immense variety of them, furnishes her with plants calculated 
to be advantageously grown, in every soil, climate, and situation 
where vegetation can exist. 

Thus the amazing aggregation of peat or moss, where an excess 
of moisture, or other causes render other vegetation impracticable, 
affords fuel in abundance ; also a valuable manure. When popula- 
tion renders the cultivation of those bogs useful to man, art con- 
verts them into very rich and luxuriant fields. 

Weeds also furnish nature with plants, that are calculated to 
grow where scarcely any soil exists. The decomposition of them, 
and the animalcula supported by them, eveiituutly enrich, and 
greatly increase the depth of such soils. Thus we see the mosses 
growing on the hardest rocks, and when a sufficiency of soil is 
introduced by the decomposition of them, that they are followed 
by stronger plants ; and no question but larger and more nutritive 
plants, continue to succeed inferior ones regularly, until the soil 
becomes sufficiently rich and deep to grow luxuriant vegetation. 

It is probable that time and combining causes may assist this 
process, by decomposing the surface of the rocks; but obvious 
causes alone are cufficient to effect this purpose. 

The sense of smelling informs us, that the air may be highly 
charged with putrid animal and vegetable effluvia. We see that 
the winds are capable of conveying this, together with light, dry 
vegetable and animal matters, as well as earth in the same state, 
to a very considerable distance. Birds and quadrupeds, as well as 



29 

water, eflfect the same purpose to a greater or less extent. A mul- 
titude of seeds are also formed to be conveyed by the same agents 
to extended, as well as more limited distances. Even the rains 
convey the substances necessary to an efficient vegetation. Sir H. 
Davy says, that he " procured from common distilled water, alkalies 
and earths." Also, " when distilled water is supplied in an unli- 
mited manner to plants, it may furnish to them a number of diffe- 
rent substances, which, though in quantities, scarcely perceptible in 
the water, may accumulate in the plants." Consequently the sub- 
stances contained in water that has not been distilled, must be 
much more considerable. 

Thus, even the summits of the hardest rocks, standing high above 
the earth, or fer distant in the ocean, may be furnished by the 
agents mentioned above, with every ingredient necessary to an 
efficient vegetation. 

Here 1 beg leave to observe, that without the aid of the ingre- 
dients which have been enumerated, no efficient vegetation can 
take place. 

Sir Joseph Banks has very ingeniously endeavoured to prove, 
that the fungus causes the mildew in wheat ; and Sir H. Davy has 
followed in the same track. It seems however difficult to conceive 
how vegetation can exist on the smooth skin or bark of a healthy 
plant where no traces, necessary to the growth of it, appear. 

Other gentlemen consider this vegetation an effect proceeding 
from the cause of mildew. The latter opinion appears to be founded 
on reason, for the rapid decay of that part of the straw affected by 
mildew, quickly furnishes all the materials necessary to the efficient 
growth of this vegetation, as the structure of wheat as well as other 
plants partakes largely of earth. Sir H. says, "the misletoe and 
ivy, the moss and lichen, inflexing on trees, uniformly injure their 
vegetative process, though in very different degrees. They are sup- 
ported from the lateral sap vessels, and deprive the branches above, 
of a part of their nourishment."* It would, however, appear, that 
the mosses and misletoe on trees vegetate and grow, where disease 
and decomposition in the bark prepare the necessary ingredients 
for an efficient vegetation. The bark is always more or less 
corroded by insects ; and if care be not taken to prevent the injury, 
a premature decay, without the assistance of this vegetation, often 
destroys the trees. There is also a roughness in the bark of most 
trees, especially after it has been sometime formed, that seems to 
be sufficient to retain the ingredients necessary to an efficient 
vegetation, and they may be readily conveyed in the way describ- 
ed above. Shaded situations and moist climates seem to favour the 
growth of this' vegetation, for in such situations trees are more es- 
pecially injured by it. We often see the northerly exposure of the 
roof of a house covered with the mosses. It is very observable that 
this vegetation is generally first seen where the shingles lap, grow- 

* See his Leo. on Agr, Chem. page 266. 



ing out from where the butt of the'upperrnost shingle is in contact 
with the one underneath it. It is here the ingredients necessary to 
an efficient vegetation first lodge. The rains, except when very light, 
pass over the butt of the shingle, as does the water over the tumble 
of a mill dam, and the collected matters together with the seed, 
remain secure. Every succeeding growth of the mosses, increases 
the means to retain the matters necessary to vegetation, as does 
the decay of the plants, until the roof is covered with moss.* If a 
water-spout, or any other thing calculated to retain these matters 
to a considerable extent, be attached to the roof, and obstructions to 
the free course of the water happen to close the ends of them, I 
have observed that purslain and other plants, far stronger than the 
mosses, take possession of the soil that accumulates in those places. 
Now it is evident that a well seasoned shingle cannot contain the 
nutritive juices formed in living plants : therefore, the means by 
which the mosses vegetate and subsist on the roof of a house, are 
very different from the manner in which Sir Humphrey Davy says 
the mosses subsist on trees, and the fungus on wheat. He tells us, 
"the fungus increases by the diffusion of its seed," and that "great 
care should be taken that no mildewed straw is carried in the ma- 
nure used for corn." But his description of the injury done by it, 
seems to convey the idea that the fungus itself, (like an active in- 
sect) has the power of removing rapidly from stalk to steilk, jioe ing 
itself in the cells connected with the tubes, and extracting the 
juices of the plant ; also carrying away and consuming this nutritive 
matter. 

He says, '' the fungus rapidly spreads from stalk to stalk, fixing 
itself in the cells connected with the tubes, and carries away and 
consumes that nourishment, which should have been appropiated 
to the grain. "t 

To this description of the fungus I can make no immediate reply, 
as I certainly do not understand, how or in which way these things 
can happen. 

However, the growth of the mosses and other plants, on the roof 
of a house, clearly determines that the ingredients mentioned above 
are all gathered and employed in that instance, in the way which 
has been described, as the whole of them are readily seen and 
examined from the commencement to the end of the process. 
It is also equally evident that this vegetation exists and becomes 
luxuriant, without deriving any advantage from extracting the 
juices, that obtain in the cells and vessels of living plants. 

" The analogy of nature is constant and uniform." Therefore, 
tliere seems to be sufficient reason to believe, that the same causes 
which introduce the mosses on the roof of a house, also cause them 
to grow on trees. 

* After the covering' of moss has promoted fermentation and decay in tlie 
shingles, they also furnish food for the plants, 
t See his Agr. Chem. page 265. 



31 

If nothing but the growth of the mosses were concerned in this 
theory, but little would have been said on this subject by me. But 
it seems highly important to the interests of agriculture, that 
farmers should be convinced, that decomposable animal and vege- 
table substances alone, furnish nutriment for plants of every descrip- 
tion ; and that these nutritious matters cannot be brought into ac- 
tive use, by any other process than fermentation and decomposition. 

If these principles were firmly established, the numerous ways 
by which these substances are now uselessly destroyed or wasted, 
would be carefully avoided, and fermentation and decomposition 
would be so ordered and directed, as to produce the very important 
advantages, which may be readily obtained, by conducting these 
very interesting processes properly. 

It appears that Sir H. Davy had, previously to making the 
following experiments, " supposed that fermentation was necessary 
to prepare the food for plants." He says, " I found from some 
experiments made in 1804, that plants introduced into strong fresh 
solutions of sugar, mucilage, tanning principle, jelly, and other 
substances died, but that plants lived in tlie same solutions after 
they had fermented; at this time, I supposed that fermentation was 
necessary to prepare the food for plants; but have since found the 
deleterious effect of the recent vegetable solutions, was owing to 
their being too concentrated; inconsequence of which, the vegetable 
organs were probably clogged with solid matter, and the transpi- 
ration of the leaves prevented. In the beginning of June, in the 
next year, I used solutions of the same substances, but so much 
diluted that there was only one two hundredth part of solid vegetable 
or animal matter in the solutions. Plants of mint grew luxuriantly 
in all these solutions; but least so in the astringent matter. I 
watered some spots of grass in my garden, with the different solu- 
tions separately, and a spot with common water: the grass watered, 
with the solutions of jelly, sugar, and mucilage, grew more vigor- 
ously, and that watered with the solution of tanning principle, grew 
better than that watered with common water.* 

I cannot devise why these experiments should have altered 
or even shaken .Sir Humphrey's previous opinion, " that fermenta- 
tation was necessary to prepare the food for plants." Common 
practice, without the aid of chemistry, determines that too much 
nutriment, as effectually destroys vegetation, as does too little of it. 
This happens even when the solid parts of the nutriment have been 
divided by fermentation and decomposition ; consequently rendered 
far more active, and less likely to clog or stop up the vegetable 
organs, than was the much more solid, undivided, and inactive 
matters used in a superabundance by him in his first experiment. 
It would also appear, the time required to determine the death of 
the plants, first put in the too powerful and inactive solutions, and 
placing other plants in the same ingredients, may have been suffi- 
cient to admit fermentation, not only to divide and expand thfiir 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pag-es 270 and 27U 



32 

parts, but likewise to weaken them so mucli, that but little if an} 
danger was lo be expected from an excess of nutriment; or from 
" the vegetable organ being clogged, with any solid matters" that 
midit remain undivided by this very important process. 

This gentleman grew plants of mint in common water alone.* 
We know that water has the power of preserving the stems, leaves, 
and flowers of plants, even after they are separated from the living 
plant; therefore the water used to dilute the weaker solutions, was 
sufficient to preserve the life of the plants put into them, until 
fermentation took place. This must have been very soon, especially 
in June, as the weather in that month is commonly sufliciently warm 
to favour this process. 

However, practice united Avith attentive observation clearly deter- 
mines, that every cause which checks fermentation, (be that cause 
what it may,) checks vegetation also ; likewise, that every cause 
which puts a stop to fermentation, produces the same effect on 
vegetation. 

We may all see that plants seem to take an especial delight 
to feed on matters that are in the highest, and to us, the most 
offensive state of putridity. Thus we find that when night soil or 
other very rich substances, that become exceedingly putrid in a 
short time, are applied as manure, the plants soon become uncom- 
monly vigorous, as well as unusually luxuriant. 

That they have been organized to digest this matter is evident, 
as we find no more traces of it, in the vegetables grown where 
the plants have free access to the putrid matters, which are the 
most offensive to us, than in those grown in soils that have been 
greatly exhausted, and never manured by man. Whereas pure 
sand, clay, magnesia, the carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of 
lime, &c. are found in their pure and unaltered state in the 
structure of plants. 

But to return to the ivy and other creeping plants. They hasten 
the death of trees, by entwining round them; the air and heat of 
the sun is greatly excluded, and much injurious moisture confined. 
Fermentation, decomposition and decay, also naturally take place 
in those parts where tlie ivy, &c. are firmly attached to the tree. 
No question but they obtain some nutriment, from the decomposed 
matter formed in tlie wound, as they also do from the decaying 
vegetable matters, which gather and are confined at those places 
where the vine fastens itself to the tree. It is, however, evident, 
that these plants depend on the soil, for nearly all the food con- 
sumed by them, as they are equally healthy and vigorous when they 
run up, and attach themselves to stone walls. 

Maize is a very large plant, consequently what happens to it is 
more readily seen. Now if this plant be wounded by injudicious 
cultivation, or in any other way, the sap commonly exudes from 
the wound, and it very often happens that a fungus is formed in. 
and grows out of the part affectea, and becomes very large. 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 271 



33 

The size of the wound increases with the {growth of the fungus, 
and the stalk is corroded as far as the fungus becomes attached 
to it. I have often removed them, both before and after they had 
become very large. In some instances this has prevented the in- 
jury that is too commonly done by them. But, in general, they 
quickly grow out again, and eventually injure, or destroy the fruit- 
fulness of the plant. However, I have never known extensive in- 
jury done by the fungus to a crop of maize ; and but little of it 
would appear, if the plants were not wounded and mangled by 
an inconsiderate cultivation. 

The mosses, as well as the weak and meager grasses and weeds 
which seem to be destined to follow them, are calculated to grow 
where more nutritive and robust plants cannot subsist; still from 
various causes tliey are often seen growing in much richer soils. 
However, the seed of the plants with which nature covers an old 
worn-out soil, after poverty has put a stop to the plough, may be 
generally conveyed by the agents mentioned above ; or proceed 
from the seeds scattered over the ground, by the weak and meager 
plants, which nature found necessary to introduce, before the soil 
was capable of perfecting plants which were more robust. It ap- 
pears that the vitality of seeds, in general, is preserved for ages, 
when buried beyond the power of germination, under the thick 
covering accumulated by the decaying vegetation grown on the 
soil. Also, that the decomposition which takes place, during a long 
course of perpetual ploughing and cropping, without attention to 
grass or manure, reduces this covering so much, that a sufficiency 
of heat and air is admitted to cause those seeds, which had remain- 
ed inactive for ages, to vegetate. 

This and other interesting facts connected with vegetation, were 
not long since explained by me in Mr. Poulson's paper; a copy of 
which, with some additions, will be hereafter inserted in this book. 

I trust the inconsiderate and irrational opinions that have ap- 
peared on this very simple and obvious subject, will be sufficient 
to convince the reader, that although an intimate acquaintance 
with the theory of science, when united witii native talents equal 
to the task, may fit a gentleman to write correctly, on subjects 
with which he is practically conversant and intimately acquainted; 
but little reliance can be placed on what he may gather from the 
discordant theories of others ; as those theories which may happen 
to be most consistent with his own uninformed ideas, may also be 
the most erroneous; especially on subjects where the operations of 
nature are concerned. To become intimately acquainted with 
them, we must see how she acts, where the art of man does not 
oppose and thwart the simple, but correct economy, practised by 
her. 

It should be also recollected, that however highly, and on the 
whole justly, a writer may be celebrated, if he advances any thing 
which is opposed to nature and reason, his name ought not to 
sanction the error. 

K 



CHAPTER IV. 

Gravitation does not, as has been asserted by some, " dispose the parts of plant« 
to take a uniform direction ;" nor do they " owe their perpendicular direc- 
tion to gravity."* Neither is the sap raised by " the agency of heat, capil- 
lary attraction," nor the " contractions and expansions of the silver grain 
of the wood :" but by the living or vital principle in plants, acting in a tem- 
perature which favours the process. 

It would answer no valuable purpose for me to explain, from the 
writings of others, the multiplied instances in which a marked ana- 
logy between plants and animals is seen. This has been exten- 
sively done by Dr. Darwin in his Phytologia, to which I refer the 
reader for interesting information on this subject ; although it would 
seem that in some instances this gentleman has carried his analogy 
too far. Be this, however, as it may, what he advances seems to 
determine, that there is not a wider blank between the line which 
separates plants from animals, than there is between that which 
separates man from the inferior animals. The reasoning, reflect- 
ing, and calculating powers of the mind of man are amazingly 
extensive, when compared with any of the faint traces we see of 
similar principles in animals; and as the body of man has been cal- 
culated to act in unison with his superior mind, it very far sur- 
passes that of the inferior animals. 

If plants possess, even in a very limited degree, any traces of 
that sagacity* which is so conspicuous in some animals, it has not 
been observed by me. 

If we injure some animals that have neither power to resist nor 
to complain, it is evidently seen that motion is excited in them. It, 
however, requires scrutiny to observe even this in others. When 
some plants are injured, we see some feeble traces of similar ef- 
fects. 

Disease, wounds, age, plenty or lack of nutriment, produce 
effects in plants which are in many respects very similar to the 
effects produced by the same causes in animals. 

Sir Humphrey Davy tells us, " gravitation has a very important 
influence on the growth of plants; and it is rendered probable, by 
the experiments of Mr. Knight, they owe the peculiar direction of 
their roots and branches almost entirely to this force." 

To convince us of this, he says, that " a gentleman fixed some 
seeds of the garden bean on the circumference of a wheel, which, in 
one instance, was placed vertically, and in another horizontally, and 
made to revolve, by the means or another wheel, worked by water 
in such a maner that the number of revolutions could be regulated : 

• See Sir H. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 34. 



35 

the beans were supplied with moisture, and were placed under cir- 
cumstances favourable to germination. The greatest velocity of 
the motion given to the wheel was such, that it performed 250 re- 
volutions in a minute ; it was found that in all cases the beans grew, 
and that the direction of the roots and steins was influenced by the 
motion of the wheel. When the centrifugal force was made supe- 
rior to the force of gravitation, which was supposed to be done when 
the vertical wheel performed 150 revolutions in a minute, all the 
radicals in whatever way they protruded from the position of the 
seeds, turned their points outward from the circumference of the 
wheel, and in their subsequent growth receded at right angles from 
its axis; the germins, on the contrary, took the opposite direction, 
and in a few days their points all met in the centre of the wheel." 

" When the centrifugal force was made merely to modify the 
forceof gravitation in the horizontal wheel, where the greatest ve- 
locity of revolution was given, the radicals pointed downward about 
ten degrees below, and the germins as many degrees above the hor- 
rizontal line of the wheel's motion, and the deviation from the per- 
pendicular was less in proportion, as the motion was less rapid." 

" These facts afford a natural solution of the curious problem, 
respecting which different philosophers have given such different 
opinions; some referring it to the nature of the sap, as De La Hire; 
others, as Darwin, to the living powers of the plant, and stimulus of 
the air upon the leaves, and moisture upon the roots: the effect is 
now shewn to be connected with mechanical causes, and there 
seems to be no power in nature to which it can with propriety be 
referred but gravity, which acts universally, and which must tend 
to dispose the parts to take a uniform direction."* 

Animate, as well as inanimate nature is influenced by gravita- 
tion ; but before Sir H. ascribed such incredible powers to it, he 
should have explained the phenomenon; especially as nothing 
more nor less can be gathered from Mr. Knight's wheels, but that 
force may counteract the usual course of nature, either more or less 
as the force may happen to be applied. 

Plants have not been subjected more, if as much, to the laws of 
gravitation as animals. It is not only pleasing, but even surprising, 
to reflect on the various methods and postures which we use to re- 
tain the centre of gravity, or to recover it when lost, without our 
being sensible of it. " Thus we bend our bodies forward when we 
rise from a chair, or when going up stairs; and for this purpose a 
man leans forward when he carries a burden on his back, or back- 
wards when he carries it on his breast ; and to the right or left side, 
as he carries it on opposite sides. "t Now, those, and very many 
other things done by us, without thought or reflection, are as much 
the efforts of the living principle that animates our bodies, as are 
the actions which require thought and deliberation ; therefore, as a 
plant is confined to one spot, thought and reflection do not seem 

* See his Lee. on Agi*. Chem. page 32 to 34. 
■jr See vol. ii. Elem. of Sciences and Arts. 



36 

to be necessary to it. The sagacity necessary to the well being of 
an active animal is not seen in the oyster. 

When heavy rains or other causes lodge or lay down our crops, 
the economy of the plants is more or less injured; still they com- 
monly become after this, sufficiently erect to produce more or less 
fruit. If the vital or living principle in the plant cannot raise the 
more ponderous parts of it, a crook is formed at the extremity of 
that part of the plant which cannot be raised. From which point 
so much of the plant, as can be raised by the living principle within 
it, takes an ascending direction. In this case it is clearly seen 
that gravity in place of "disposing the parts of plants to take a 
uniform direction," is in most instances opposed to it. It is 
gravity that confines that part of the plant, which cannot be raised 
in immediate opposition to it, by the powers of life in the plant. 

Here the analogy between the action of the living principle 
which animates plants, and that which animates animals, is power- 
fully enforced. After a disease has been entirely removed, and 
the patient excersises all his reasoning faculties, it often happens, 
that he cannot remove himself from the spot on which he lies, or 
even turn from side to side, or raise himself up in his bed. The 
cause of this is evident ; disease has weakened his system so much, 
that he has not sufficient force or strength, to overcome the power 
of gravity, which confines the more ponderous parts of his body to 
the bed on which he lies ; although he may be able to raise his 
hands and arms, or remove his feet and legs, as it requires much 
less power to do either. Still those much less powerful effiarts are 
dependent on animation ; for no more power exists in a lifeless 
corps than in the dead body of a tree. 

Gravitation acts uniformly, and is only to be overcome by supe- 
rior force. This force may be natural, artificial, or accidental, or 
formed by a combination of these causes. 

In clearing oft' grounds in the back woods, we sometimes observe, 
that the exceedingly heavy trigger of a dangerous trap is kept in 
its place by gravitation. When the bodies of some trees which 
were blown down, and had lain on the ground for a considerable 
time, are cut off, the stumps, be they long or short, immediately 
assume their original upright posture. It appears, when this hap- 
pens, the roots next to the direction in which the tree falls, were 
not broken by the fall of it ; and the bend made in them by the 
falling of the tree forms powerful springs; also that gravity con- 
fines the ponderous trigger attached to the trap, until art has re- 
moved it by the axe. 

W^hen a ditch is made on aline separating a field from an adjoin- 
ing wood, the lateral roots of the trees which had run into the latter, 
are cut off. New roots are quickly formed by the living principle 
in the tree. These take their usual lateral direction through the 
soil, until they approach near the ditch. Here the root acts as if 
instructed by some intuitive principle, (which we do not, and per- 
haps cannot clearly comprehend,) not to expose its young and 



37 

tender fibres to the destructive influence of the open air, and scorch- 
ing rajs of the sun, and as if it had power to avoid the injury; for 
at this point it forms an angle, and turns downward, and also keeps 
at that distance from the surface of the side of the ditch which 
seems well calculated to secure that portion of heat, moisture, and 
air, which accords best with the economy of it. After the root has 
proceeded downwards somewhat deeper than the bottom of the 
ditch, a second angle is formed, and it crosses the ditch at a proper 
distance from the surface of it. Here a third angle is formed, un- 
der the side of the ditch next to the field, and the root progresses 
upward in direct opposition to gravity, until it comes in contact 
■with the soil which is capable of supplying it with sufficient nutri- 
ment. Here this well informed traveller, forming a fourth angle, 
and the roots and fibres growing from it, spread themselves through 
the soil, at that distance from the surface, which nature had formed 
them to inhabit. 

It is also often seen that the roots of trees have crossed very deep 
and wide gullies in the same way. When the gullies have become 
sufficiently wide to carry off the water readily, grass and other 
vegetation calculated to prevent washing, accumulate on the bottom 
and sides of them. 

The tap roots of plants grow downwards, and some of them to 
a great depth. How they have been formed to thrive and flourish 
so far from the surface of the soil, and where we do not observe 
that any nutriment for plants obtains, is a difficult question. Still 
as we may see that those roots supply the upper part of the struc- 
ture of plants of this description, with so much moisture during a 
dry time, that they continue green and luxuriant, when plants 
without tap roots are suffering very much by drought, there is 
every reason to believe that the lateral roots, and other organs of 
plants of this kind, which have been formed to gather nutriment, 
and placed where it abundantly obtains, are so much invigorated 
by this highly important supply of moisture, as to be enabled to 
gather much more nutritious matter, during a dry time, than could 
be otherwise done. Now if this be granted, it is by no means dif- 
ficult to suppose, that plants of this kind have been so constructed, 
that a sufficiency of this nutriment, together with other ingredients, 
may be readily conveyed by the upper structure of the plant, to 
that part of it which grows deep in the inert earth, where but little 
if any nutriment obtains. 

Be this, however, as it may, long practice and observation seem 
to determine, that lateral roots cannot live, if they be buried so 
deep in the ground as to exclude a due proportion of heat, nutri- 
ment, and atmospheric air : also, that the living principle in plants 
makes powerful efforts to place their lateral roots at a proper dis- 
tance from the surface. 

This is seen when seeds (such as wheat, &c.) which do not form 
tap roots, are buried too deep for lateral rooted plants to prosper. 
Although the seed may vegetate and form sufficient roots to keep 



38 

tlie plant alive for a time, it is feeble, and grows slowly, until the 
vital principle in the plant has formed another set of roots at a 
proper depth within the surface of the soil. After this has been 
done, decomposition separates the first set of roots from the plant, 
just underneath the spot where the last set of roots is formed. 

The same often happens, when trees are planted so deep in the 
inert earth, that the energetical power of life is not sufficient to 
enable the roots to rise up and take possession of the soil in which 
nature had constructed them to grow. In this case, unless the sys- 
tem of the plant has been too much injured and debilitated by the 
removal of it, the powerful principle of life causes a new set of roots 
to be formed, at that distance within the surface of the soil, which 
best suits the nature and properties of the plant. 

But to come still nearer to the point. When a tree grows on the 
side of a very steep and high hill, does gravity cause the lateral 
roots " to take a uniform direction ?" Certainly not. If this were 
the case, the lateral roots next to the declivity would branch out 
into the air. While those on the side next to the hill would be 
compelled to grow horizontally, and bury themselves deep in the 
inert earth. 

Happily for us, vegetation does not depend on theories, but on 
nature, and the living principle in plants. These direct, and also 
enable, the lateral roots to ascend and descend a steep and high 
hill, at a proper depth within the surface of the soil. This is done 
in a way which is very analogous to that pursued by the mole, when 
it ascends and descends a steep and high hill, in search of the food 
which had been provided for it. 

Where stones, or other obstacles, obtain, the mole has to exercise 
his sagacity, and patiently encounter the labour arising from bur- 
rowing over, under, or round them, as may best suit his purpose. 

Now it seems evident, that the lateral root pursues its course 
much in the same way, and for the same purpose, and in every 
respect performs the part which nature has assigned it to act on 
the theatre of life, quite as well as does the mole. 

It would, however, appear, that, as Sir H. Davy cannot so readily 
see the action of the springs which are set in motion by the ener- 
getical powers of life in a plant, or the cause which teaches, inclines, 
or induces it to act in unison with its structure and organization, 
as he does the causes whicli enable, and the instinct which teaches, 
inclines, and induces an animal to act in unison with its structure 
and organization, he denies that plants are animated by the vital 
principle, and attributes what is done by this principle in them, to 
gravitation, and other physical causes. 

It is said that the falling of an apple from a tree, suggested to 
Sir Isaac Newtpn the rudiments of gravitation. But be this as it 
may, it would be very difficult to believe, that the same physical 
cause which occasioned this, or any other apple, to fall to the ground, 
also caused the body and branches of the tree on which it grew to 
ascend up into their native element. 



39 

It is really wonderful that Sir H. did not think of this; especially 
as he has very judiciously informed us, that "lite gives a peculiar 
character to all its productions. The power of attraction and re- 
pulsion, combination and decomposition, are subservient to it." 
Now if this be admitted, every difficulty which has been set in 
motion, either by Mr. Knight's wheals, or whirly-gigs, or by French 
philosophy, as it is now called by some, vanishes. For, agreeably 
to this rational theory, life, in its lowest grade, acts independently 
of every thing, except the vyill of the Deity, who is the essence and 
fountain of life ; and who, for reasons which seem to be wise and 
benevolent, but best known to himself, has caused this powerfully 
self-moving principle to animate organized matter; and through 
the medium of this organization, to perpetuate and multiply itself, 
in the various forms and grades of animals and plants in which it 
was first made to exist. 

But it would seem that theeflects produced on Sir H.'s imagina- 
tion by the rapid motion of Mr. Knight's wheels or whirly-gigs, or 
(if Bailey's definition of a whirly-gig be correct,) " playthings turn- 
ing round," have induced him to believe, that " animation, is limited 
to beings possessing the means of voluntary locomotion." 

He says that, •' In animal systems, the heart and arteries are in 
constant pulsation. Their functions ai-e unceasingly performed 
in all climates, and in all seasons ; in winter as well as in spring, 
upon the arctic snows, and under the tropical suns. The power is 
connected with animation, is limited to beings possessing the means 
of voluntary locomotion ; it exists with the first appearance of vi- 
tality ; and disappears with the last spark of life."* 

Thus it appears that this gentleman, not content with controvert- 
ing the theory of the animation of plants, advances further, and 
would seem to say that many animals themselves are not possessed 
of animation. 

There is a great variety of animals which do not "possess the 
means of voluntary locomotion." The common use of the oyster, 
however, has made many better acquainted with it, than with most 
other animals, who have no more power to remove from one place 
to another than plants. To keep oysters alive, when removed from 
their native element, water, in wnich salt has been dissolved, is 
sprinkled over them. The noise made by them in taking in this 
1 efreshment is so loud and continued, as not to escape the notice 
of even an inattentive observer. If a living oyster be removed 
from its shell, the pulsation of its heart, is often seen for some 
time after it has been laid in a plate. 

We have just as much I'eason to question the vitality and anima- 
tion of the active monkey, as that of the oyster. If it were possible 
to prove that the oyster did not possess vitality, and had been 
'\ikjected to the laws that govern dead or inanimate matter, it 



* See his Lee. on Agr. Cbem. page 249. 



40 

might also be readily proved, that not only the monkey, but also 
man, had been subjected to the same laws. 

Sir Humphrey informs us, that *' The root of the vegetable is 
its organ of nourishment, by which it imbibes food from the soil. 
The root may be said to be a continuation of the trunk terminating 
in minute ramifications aad filaments, and not in leaves ; by bury- 
ing the branches of certain trees and elevating their roots, the roots 
produce leaves, and the branches radical fibres and tubes."* 

" The wood of trees is composed of an external living part, cal- 
led alburnum or sap-wood, and an internal or dead part, the heart- 
wood.*' " The alburnum is white and full of moisture, it is the great 
vascular system, through which the sap rises ; and the vessels in it 
extend from the leaves to the minutest filaments in the roots. "t 

" In the leaves, much of the water of the sap is evaporated ; it is 
combined with new principles fitted for its organizing functions, 
and probably passes, in its prepared state, from the extreme tubes 
of the alburnum into the ramifications of the cortical tubes, and 
then descends through the bark.":|: 

" There are in the arrangement of the fibres of the wood, two 
distinct appearances ; there is a series of white shining laminse, 
which shoot from the centre to the circumierence, and these con- 
stitute what is called the silver grain of the wood. There are also 
numerous series of concentric layers, which are usually called the 
spurious grain, and their number denotes the age of the tree." 
"The silver grain is elastic and contractile, and it has been sup- 
posed, by Mr. Knight, that the change of volume produced in it by 
the change in the temperature is one of the principal causes of the 
ascent of the sap. The fibres of it seem always to expand in the 
morning, and contract at night; and the ascent of the juices, de- 
pends principally on the agency of heat. 

" The silver grain is most distinct in forest trees ; but even an- 
nual shrubs have a system of fibres similar to it. The analogy of 
nature is constant and uniform, and similar effects are usually pro- 
duced by similar organs." 

"The pith occupies the centre of the wood; its texture is mem- 
braneous; it is composed of cells, which are circular towards the 
extremity, and hexagonal in the centre of the substance. In the 
first infancy of the vegetable, the pith occupies but a small space. 
It gradually dilates; and, in annual shoots and young trees, offers 
a considerable diameter. In the more advanced age of the tree, 
acted on by the heart-wood, pressed by the layers of the alburnum, 
it begins to diminish, and in very old forest trees disappears al- 
together."§ * 

♦ See his Lee. on Agr. Cham, page 56. f Idem, pages 59 and 60. 

^ Idem, page 64. • 

§ Old age causes the organization of animal as well as vegetable systems tn 
become imperfect. The interior pai-ts of very old trees are more frequently 
found hollow than that of younger ones. In either of those cases, as the mid- 



41 

In the second lecture, to which Sir H. above refers, and in which 
he tells us he had "stated that the ascent of the sap depends prin- 
cipallj on the agencj of heat;" he says, "The influence of the 
changes of seasons, and of the position of the sun on the phenomena 
of vegetation, demonstrate the effects of heat on the functions of 
plants. The matter absorbed from the soil must be in a fluid state 
to pass into the roots. The activity of chemical changes, likewise, 
is increased by a certain increase of temperature, and even the 
rapidity of the ascent of the fluids by capillary attraction. 

" This last is easily shown, by placing in each of two wine Masses 
a similar hollow stalk of grass, so bent as to discharge any fluid in 
the glasses slowly, by capillary attraction ; if hot water be in one 
glass, and cold water in the other, the hot water will be discharged 
much more rapidly than the cold water."* He again observes, that 
"The attraction of cohesion, sometimes called capillary attraction, 
enables fluids to rise in capillary tubes. This attraction like gravi- 
tation, seems common to all matter, and may be a modification of 
the same force ;t like gravitation, it is of great importance in vege- 
tation. It preserves the forms of the aggregation of plants, and it 
seems to be a principal cause of the absorption of the fluids by their 
roots.t 

It is difiBcult to follow Sir H. through the difl'erent theories he 
forms respecting the ascent of the sap. In his second lecture, he 
seems to refer it to the agency of heat, and capillary attraction. 
In his third lecture, as may be seen by the foregoing quotation 
from it, he adds to the theory formed in his second lecture, the 
advantages which he then seems to expect from the supposed " re- 
gular expansions and contractions of the silver grain of the wood ;" 
but at the same time asserts, that " the ascent of the sap, as was 
stated in the last lecture, depends principally on the agency of 
heat." 

He seems, however, to have discovered, after this, that neither 
the agency of heat, nor capillary attraction, nor the regular expan- 
sions and contractions of the silver grain, were sufficient to raise 

die of the tree has sunk into decay the pith and very frequently the heart- 
wood, disappear, as far as the decay has extended. See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. 
pages 60 and 61. 

* Here Sir H. seems to labour hard, by " the effects of heat on the functions 
of plants," together with his hollow stalks of grass, and hot water, to substantiate 
his first theory, "the ascent of the saj) depends principally on heat. — See his 
Lectures on Agr. Chem. page 38. — Idem, page 35. ' 

f That is, it may or may not be a modification of the same force, for aught 
Sir H. or any other person, knows to the contrary of either. 

^ It may preserve the forms of the aggregations of the parts of the dead and 
inanimate matter. It is, however, evident, that it is the powerfully living prin- 
cipal in plants that preserves the forms of the aggregations of them, as they 
crumble into pieces when this principle no longer exists in them ; here again 
the analogy between plants and animals is strikingly great. 

F 



42 

the sap. For he again changes liis theory, and tells us in his fifth 
lecture, " The powers which cause the ascent of the sap have been 
slightly touched upon in the second and third lectures. The roots 
imbibe fluids from the soil by capillary attraction ; but this power 
alone is insufficient to account for the rapid elevation of the sap into 
the leaves. This is fully proved by the following fact, detailed by 
Dr. Hales, in his first volume of the ' Vegetable Statics,' page 114. 
A vine branch of four or five years old was cut through, and a glass 
tube carefully attached to it; this tube was bent as a siphon, and 
filled with quicksilver ; so that the force of the ascending sap could 
be measured by its effect in elevating the quicksilver. In a few days 
it was found, that the sap had propelled forwards with so much 
force, as to raise the quicksilver to thirty-eight inches, which is a 
force considerably superior to that of the usual pressure of the 
atmosphere. Capillary attractions can only be exerted by the sur- 
faces of small vessels, and can never raise a fluid into tubes above 
the vessels themselves." 

" I referred in the beginning of the third lecture to Mr. Knight's 
opinion, that the contractions and expansions of the silver grain 
in the alburnum are the most efficient cause of the ascent of the 
fluids contained in the pores and vessels.* The views of this ex- 
cellent physiologist are rendered, extremely probable, by the facts 
he has brought forward in support of them. Mr. Knight found that 
a very small increase of temperature was sufficient to cause the 
fibres of the silver grain to separate from each other, and a very 
slight diminution of heat produced their contraction. The sap 
rises most vigorously in spring and autumn, at the time the tem- 
perature is variable; and if it be supposed, that in expanding and 
contracting, the elastic fibres of the silver grain exercise a pressure 
upon the cells and tubes, containing the fluid absorbed by the ca- 
pillary attraction of the roots, this fluid must constantly move up- 
wards towards the points where a supply is needed " 

♦ Sir H. does tell us In the beginning of the third lecture that " The silver 
grain is elastic and contractile, and it has been supposed by Mr." Knight, that 
the change of volume produced in it by change of temperature, is one of the 
principal causes of the ascent of the sap." But as if determined to be clearly 
understood that heat was the principle agent employed in this process, he 
immediately says, " The fibres of it (that is of the silver grain) seem always to 
expand in the morning and contract at night; and tlie ascent of the juices, as 
was stated in the last lecture depends principally on the agency of heat. 

Why Sir H. does not seem to know or say that lie has changed the " princi- 
pal" or "most efficient" cause of the ascent of the sap, and also his theory of 
the expansions and contractions of the silver grain is unknown to me. Both of 
these changes, however, have been made by him. In his second lecture he 
tells us " The fibres of it (that is of the sih er grain) seem always to expand in 
the morning, and contract at night-" But in direct opposition to this rnarked 
regularity in the contractions and expansions of the silver grain he forms a 
theory in his fifth lecture, by which it would appear he wishes us to believe 
that the sap is raised by the variable and irregular " expansions and contJ'ac- 
tions of the elastic fibres of the silver gi-ain." 



43 

" The experiments of Montgolfier, the celebrated inventor of the 
balloon, have shown that water may be raised almost to an indefinite 
height by a very small force, provided its pressure betaken oft" by 
continued divisions in the column of fluid. This principle, there 
is great reason to suppose must operate in assisting tne ascent of the 
sap in the cells and vessels of plants which have no rectilineal 
communication, and every where oppose obstacles to the perpen- 
dicular pressure of the sap."* 

The wonderful mechanism of the human system ought to have 
convinced Sir H., that nature had not been so deficient in the 
organization of plants as that " every where obstacles oppose the 
perpendicular pressure of the sap :" especially as he says, " the 
analogy of nature is constant and uniform, and similar effiects are 
usually produced by similar organs." 

In fact, fifty years ago, every schoolboy in the little village where 
I was born, knew full well that no obstacles existed to prevent the 
pressure of the sap through the pores in the wood. Before the 
novelty ceased to surprise, some boys were in the habit of taking 
others, who had not seen the experiment tried, to a cooper's shop, 
to convince them that they could blow their breath through a stave, 
from one end to the other of it. 

The young philosopher wetted one end of the stave with his spittle. 
By placing the other end in his mouth and blowing, the spittle was 
immediately seen by his astonished pupil to form bubbles of various 
sizes, which rose and fell in very rapid succession, as long as the 
experimenter could continue the blast. 

The astonishment, however, of the novice ceased, as soon as he 
had reflected, that he had often seen the sap exuding from the ends of 
green wood exposed to the sun, or more intense heat of a fire. 
This convinced him that the pores in the wood, through which the 
breath of the learned boy had passed, had been formed by nature 
for the circulation of the sap. 

However, as fifty years had elapsed since I had seen this experi- 
ment tried, the stave of an old flour-barrel was cut off this morning, 
at each end, near to the inner side of the groove in which the head 
was fastened, and the experiment conducted as it was when I was 
a boy : the result was the same. 

The wood of the stave last employed was oak, as was that of the 
staves used fifty years ago; not of the kinds which form a very 
close grain. The pores of these, and several kinds of wood, become 
too compact after they have been much compressed by being sea- 
soned, to admit air to be blown through them by the mouth, and 
while they are green, and the pores filled with sap, this fluid would 
oppose the progress of the air, unless the force employed were 
very great. 

It may be probable, that if the green wood were immersed in 
water until the sap were soaked out, and after this, very quickly 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 239, 240, and 241. 



44 

dried, that air might be blown by the mouth through the pores of many 
of the close grained woods. This is, however, of no consequence, 
as "the analogy of natuie is constant and uniform, and similar 
effects are usually produced by similar organs."* 

Having proved that nature has not introduced obstacles opposed 
to the ascent of the sap. I beg leave to observe, that Sir H. in his 
third lecture, wiien endeavouring to prove that " the ascent of the 
sap depends principally on heat," says, "the fibres of the silver 
grain seems always to expand in the morning and contract at 
night. "t This is certainly expressive of a very marked regulari- 
ty. He, however, contradicts this in his fifth lecture, when about 
to form a very different theory; to wit, resting principally on the 
frequent expansions and contractions of the silver grain. He then 
says, "The sap rises most vigorously in the spring and autumn, at 
the time the temperature is not variable; and if it be supposed that 
in expanding and contracting the elastic fibres of the silver grain 
exercise pressure upon the cells and tubes, containing the fluids ab- 
sorbed by the capillary attraction of the roots, this fluid must con- 
stantly move upwards towards the points where it is wanted." 

Now, Sir H. ought to have recollected, before he promulgated this 
hypothesis, that he had neither proved, nor even made it appear 
probable, that the roots absorbed fluids from the soil by capillary 
attraction ; nor pointed out any probable force by which the sap was 
pressed upwards; nor described the divisions in the column that 
take off" the pressure. 

For if it were admitted that the aerial voyager (with whom it 
would seem Sir H. had suffered his imagination to soar too high) be 
correct, in saying that " water may be raised to almost an indefi- 
nite height by a very small force, provided its pressure be taken off* 
by continued divisions in the column," the force must be applied, 
and the divisions in the column must exist, before the water can be 
raised. 

It is really wonderful that Sir H. after being so clearly informed 
by Dr. Hales, that the running of the sap was not only checked 
during those changes in the temperature, but that it also descended 
and remained quiescent, until the temperature favoured its rising, 
should assert that the sap rises most vigorously at the time the tem- 
perature is variable. 

It would, however, seem that Sir H. could not devise, or has for- 
gotten to tell us, by what power "the sap is pressed upwards," 
when the silver grain (as very often happens,) regularly expands 
in the morning and contracts at niglit; and at which time, if the 
weather be neither too cold nor too hot, and be also clear, the sap 
flows with a much greater rapidity and regularity than at any other 
time, as will be explained presently. 

If, however, the silver grain did expand and contract as regu- 
larly and as frequently as the pendulum of a clock vibrates, it would 

* See Sir H. Davy's Lectures on Agr. Chem. page 61. 
t Idem, page 61. 



45 

seem that the sap would descend, if no power superior to gravita- 
tion intervened. This is confirmed by Sir H. himself, who says, 
" The motion of the sap through the bark seems principally to de- 
pend on gravitation. VVhen the watery particles have been con- 
siderably dissipated by the transpiring functions of the leaves, and 
the mucilaginous, inflammable, and astringent constituents, increas- 
ed by the agency of heat, light and air, the continued impulse up- 
wards from the alburnum, forces the remaining inspissated fluid 
into the cortical vessels, which receive no other supply. In these, 
from its weight, its natural tendency must be to descend ; and the 
rapidity of the descent must depend upon the general consumption 
of the fluids of the bark in the living processes of vegetation ; for 
there is every reason to believe, that no fluid passes into the soil 
through the roots ; and it is impossible to conceive a free lateral 
communication between the absorbent vessels of the alburnum in 
the roots and the transporting or carrying vessels of the bark ; for 
if such a communication existed, there is no reason why the sap 
should not rise through the bark as well as through the alburnum ; 
for the same physical powers would operate upon both."* 

Now, certain it is, that the parts of the bark through which the 
cortical vessels pass, seem to be far more elastic and contractile 
than the silver grain of the alburnum, and no question but the ex- 
pansions ahd contractions of it are at least quite as extensive. 
Why then should not the fluid in the cells and vessels in the albur- 
num, from its gravity, its natural tendency, be compelled to de- 
scend, as well as that in the vessels of the bark, if no power supe- 
rior to " common physical agencies " caused it to ascend ? " for the 
same physical powers would operate upon both." 

I would also observe, that here again Sir H. has entrapped him- 
self, as will every gentleman, be his talents what they may, who 
attempts to prove there is " nothing above common matter in the 
vegetable economy." 

He tells us, that " the rapidity of the descent, (that is, of the 
fluid in the cortical vessels,) must depend principally upon the 
general consumption of the fluid of the bark in the Living processes 
of vegetation. " 

Now, I believe there are few men, who have given but common 
attention to what passes in their own system, who would readily 
believe, that the " living processes " employed in the animal econo- 
my, such as the circulation of the "fluids," or blood, were more 
confirmatory of vitality and " animation " than are the " processes " 
of digestion, chylification, or the extensive application of the nutri- 
ment on which animals live. Here again the analogy between plants 
and animals is very conspicuous. 

If plants have been subjected to the same laws that govern dead 
matter, how does it happen that early in the spring when the buds 
are yet small, and present but a very limited surface to be acted 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Cbem. pages 244 and 245. 



46 

upon by the feeble ray of a distant sun, and when the ground is 
deeply covered with snow, that the sap runs freely from the su^ar 
tree through the day ? This uniformly happens, if the days are 
generally clear, and but moderately warm for the season, and the 
nights sufficiently frosty and cold to congeal the surface of the 
snow, or any part of the ground which may happen to be uncover- 
ed. Much sugar is made if this state of the weather generally ex- 
ists during the season for making this article. 

The cause of this seems evident. If the variations in the tem- 
perature, and changes in the atmosphere, with regard to dryness 
and moisture, happen to be frequent, it appears that the organs of 
the tree are so sensibly affected by those changes, ( after the pores 
and vessels have been expanded by the powerful principle of life, , 
acting in a temperature which had been previously favourable to the 
action of it,) that the ascent of the sap is frequently retarded and 
checked, and so often descends, that but little of it runs out from 
where the trees have been tapped. 

As nature is ever vigilant to promote the interest of vegetation to 
the utmost extent, she is continually applying the little sap which 
circulates, while this unfavourable temperature continues, to the 
growth and expansion of the buds which form the leaves and flow- 
ers of the plant; and perhaps is also hoarding up rich matters (as 
it is supposed she does in the case of the grasses,) for forming the 
seed. 

These facts are so notorious that the farmers in my neighbour- 
hood, and so far as my information extends, every where else, where 
the sugar tree is in plenty, have often to complain, that the season 
for making it has been so unfavourable, that much time has been ex- 
pended in this business to but very little purpose. 

To cast further light on this subject, I will transcribe a quotation 
made by Sir H. from Dr. Hales: " It is impossible to peruse any 
considerable part of the * Vegetable Statics' of Hales, without re- 
ceiving a deep impression of the dependence of the motion of the 
sap upon common physical agencies. In the same tree, this saga- 
cious person observed that in a cloudy morning when no sap as- 
cended, a sudden change was produced by a gleam of sunshine, of 
half an hour ; and a vigourous motion of the fluid. The alteration of 
the wind from south to north immediately checked the effect. On 
the coming on of a cold afternoon after a hot day, the sap that had 
been rising began to fall. A warm shower and a sleet storm pro- 
duced opposite effects."* 

This, on the whole, is very expressive of what occurs when the 
season for making sugar happens to be precarious ; except that the 
tree is sometimes so sensibly affected by the heat of the sun in the 
middle of the day, that the rising of the sap is greatly depressed, 
or else entirely suspended. 

It appears that Dr. Hales supposed, that " the pith was the great 

* See Sir H, Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 248. 



47 

cause of the expansion and development of the other parts of the 
plant; thai being the most interior, it was likewise the most acted 
upon by all the organs, and that from its reaction the phenomena 
of their development and growth resulted."* 

I have not seen Dr. Hales's " VegetableStatics," but as we are 
indebted to him for the important experiments made on the branches 
of the vine and apple tree, to determine the force of the ascend- 
ing sap ; and every thing quoted from his writings by Sir H. seems 
to determine that he was a judicious and very attentive observer of 
the economy of plants, it would be difficult for me to believe that 
he could suppose, that the action and reaction which he believed 
took place between the pith and other parts of a plant, could pro- 
ceed from a power residing in inanimate organized matter ; or that 
there "seemed to be no other power to which this can with propri- 
ety be referred but gravity, which acts universally," and which Sir 
H. also says, " must tend to dispose the parts to take uniform di- 
rections."! 

Be this, however, as it may, it would seem that after Sir H. hadVead 
or better considered, the result of Dr. Hales's experiment upon the 
branch of the vine, he was convinced that his system, founded on 
the agency of heat, capillary attraction, and on " the fibres of the 
silver grain always expanding in the morning, and contracting at 
night,"! '^ad been built on a sandy foundation. Certain it is, that 
immediately after quoting this experiment, his system is changed. 
It would also seem, that he was very erroneously led to believe, 
that what Dr. Hales says of the frequent fluctuation in the ascent 
and descent of the sap, was greatly in favour of his new theory, 
founded on the frequent" expansions and contractions of the silver 
grain," in consequence of the " variable temperature which occurs 
in spring and autumn."§ 

It has, however, been clearly demonstrated by actual and very 
extensive practice, that in place of the sap rising most vigorously, 
when the temperature is variable, it actually ceases to flow freely, 
and often descends. This fact is so obvious, where sugar is made 
that not only every farmer engaged in making it, but also every 
boy or girl who assists him in the business, can generally readily 
tell, by the state of the weather, before they examine the result, 
whether the sap has or has not run freely, since they last visited 
the trees. 

This, as well as most other things, seems to determine, that there 
is scarcely any thing in nature so simple and obvious, that it does 
not require practical observation to become well acquainted with 
it : also, that those who write for the express purpose of teaching 
others, should first become practically and intimately acquainted 
with the subject they mean to elucidate. 

» See Sir H. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 62. f Idem, page 34.. 
i lilero, page61. § Idem, page 240. 



48 

That plants are more tenacious of life than animals, and have 
been better organized to preserve and propagate it, is evident. If 
a green pole, formed from some kinds of wood, be used as a rail, it 
often vegetates and produces branches and leaves, before the living 
principal is destroyed. Or if it be used for a stake, roots are 
formed; and if it be sulFered to remain, it becomes a tree. Plants 
propagate their species from their branches and roots, as well as 
from seed. If a branch be separated from a tree, and properly 
placed in water, the vital principle in it is preserved for some 
time. 

This is seen in the branch of the apple tree immersed in water 
by Dr. Hales. Of it Sir H. says, " A branch from an apple tree 
was separated, and introduced into water, and connected with a 
mercurial gauge. When the leaves were upon it, it raised the 
mercury by the force of the ascending juices four inches ; but a 
similar branch, from which the leaves were removed, scarcely raised 
it a quarter of an inch "* 

Now if the power in the leaves alone to raise the sap was in this 
experiment more than is sixteen to one, I cannot see why Sir H. 
should tell us, that '• the ascent of the juices depends principally on 
heat;" or, that " the contractions and expansions of the silver grain are 
the most efficient cause of the ascent of the fluids ;" or, " in calling 
forth the vegetable functions, common physical agents alone seem 
to operate; but in animal systems, those agents are made subservi- 
ent to a superior principle;" or, that " we must not suffer ourselves to 
be deluded by the very extensive application of the word life, to 
conceive any power similar to that producing life in animals. 
To give the argument, in plainer language, there are few philoso- 
phers who would be inclined to assert the existence of any thing 
above common matter, any thing immaterial, in the vegetable economy 
and for reasons nearly as strong, irritability and animation ought to 
be excluded."! 

The word immaterial is used to convey different ideas ; there- 
fore using this word as it has been used in the present instance 
by Sir H. does not appear to give the argument in plainer lan- 
guage. 

If this gentleman means " there are but few philosophers who 
would be inclined to assert the existence of any thing in the vege- 
table economy," similar to that highly exalted principle in man 
which in all ages, and under every system and form of religion, has 
enabled him to extend his views beyond his present mode of exis- 
tence; and which good and pious men living under the dispensa- 
tion of the Gospel inform us, may be extended so far as to obtain 
on this side of the grave, a happy assurance of immortality and 
eternal life, there are certainly but few philosophers who would as- 
sert that this is seen in the vegetable economy, or even in the 
economy of the inferior animals. The sagacity of some of the lat- 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pag-e 241. fldem, page 250. 



49 

ter is astonishingly great: still we do not observe that they have 
the power to extend their views further than their present mode of 
existence. There have been, however, a multitude of philosophers, 
and wise ones too, wiio assert the existence in the vegetable econo- 
my of a principle far above "common matter." As none of them 
have written more correctly on the chemical subjects connected 
with agriculture than has Sir H. Davy, when he confines himself 
to subjects which long practical observation had rendered familiar 
to him, I will quote again his own words ; as it would be impossible 
for me to select any that are better calculated to substantiate this 
very interesting fact : to wit, " The same accuracy of weight and 
measure, the same statistical results which depend on the unifor- 
mity of the laws that govern dead matter, cannot be expected in 
operations where the powers of life are concerned, and where a di- 
versity of organs and functions exists. The classes of definite in- 
organic bodies, even if we include the crystalline arrangements of 
the mineral kingdom, are few, compared with the forms and sub- 
stances belonging to animated nature. Life gives a peculiar cha- 
racter to allits productions ; the powers of attraction and repulsion, 
covibination and decomposition, are subservient to it."* 

Now, it is strange that, after applying this expressly to plants 
in his second lecture, this gentleman should, either from forgetful- 
ness or some other cause, assert, in his fifth lecture, " that in call- 
ing forth the vegetable functions, common physical agents alone 
seem to operate ; but in animal systems, these agents are made 
subservient to a superior power." Also, that "few philosophers 
would assert that any thing above common matter exists in the 
vegetable economy." Likewise, that " animation ought to be ex- 
cluded. "t Although it may be seen from the above quotation, 
that he previously considered plants as '• belonging to animated 
nature." 



* See his Lee, on Agr. Chera. page 54. . f Idem, page 250. 



CHAPTER V. 



It is shown that men and other animals are quite as much, or probably mor?, 
affected and injured, by changes in temperature, than plants are. Also, 
that the suspension or languid action of the living principle in trees, during 
winter, furnishes no just cause tor questioning their vitahty or animation. 
The sleep or folding up of the leaves of plants at night, (as usually descri- 
bed.) appears to be a mistaken theory ; as it would seem, that the leaves of 
plants fold or curl up through the heat of the day, more generally than they 
do through the night The animation and sensibility of plants is considered. 
It is also shown that the small size of the pores in the roots and radical fibres 
of plants, is a wise provision of nature. 

1 TRUST it will clearly appear, from what has been advanced in 
the foregoing chapter, that gravitation does not " dispose the parts 
of plants to take a uniform direction." Also, that the sap is not 
raised either by the agency of heat, capillary attraction, or the ex- 
pansions and contractions of the silver grain of the wood, but by the 
living principle in plants, acting in a temperature which favours the 
process. 

Nature has caused plants to grow in every climate where vegeta- 
tion can exist. As they have no power to remove from one place 
to another, and are continually exposed to the vicissitudes of the 
season, their structures have been formed to suit their peculiar situ- 
ation, and the climates they have been destined to inhabit. There- 
fore, that degree of temperature which is most favourable to some 
of them, is injurious and often destructive to others. Most animals, 
however, are equally subjected to the same laws. Not only those 
that are as stationary as plants, and have no more power to skreen 
themselves from the vicissitudes of the climate, but also many of 
those that have the power to travel far, and sagacity to find, or 
with great ingenuity to form shelters, which skreen or defend them 
from the inclemency of the seasons. Many of this description be- 
come so much affected by difference in temperature, that they die 
when removed to some climates, which are very favourable to the 
existence of such animals as have been constructed to live in them. 

Even man, who seems to have been destined to live in every cli- 
mate where sufficient nutriment is to be obtained, cannot exist in 
many climates without encountering very considerable labour, in 
forming various conveniences to defend himself from the inclemency 
of the seasons, which, notwithstanding all his care and toil, often 
destroy him. How often are men and the inferior animals found 
dead, in consequence of venturing too far, or staying too long from 
the shelter aftbrded them by their huts, houses, dens, &c. It would 
appear, they could not exist in consequence of the absence of suffi- 



51 

cient heat to form a proper temperature for the " pulsation of the 
heart and arteries,'' which, with the power of " locomotion" also. 
Sir H. seems to consider necessary to constitute vitality and ani- 
mation. 

We find, however, that though they possess those boasted pow- 
ers, and a warm covering of wool, fur, hair, &c. animals are found 
frozen to death; while the trees and shrubs standing beside them 
remain unhurt, notwithstanding the organs of the latter are so very 
sensibly affected by the changes in temperature, which happen 
when they possess the power to display luxuriant vegetation. 
Now the cause of this hardihood through the winter seems evident. 
The frosts commence in the fall, and gradually increase until 
vegetation is locked up. The leaves are gradually affected, un- 
til they fall. The tender and very sensible pores, tubes and ves- 
sels of the tree, being affected by these changes of temperature, 
gradually contract, until sensibility is so much diminished, that the 
principle of life remains secure and uninjured through the winter, 
m consequence of the inactivity assumed by it. 

This inactivity seems to confirm Sir H. in the opinion, that 
"Nothing above common matter exists in the vegetable economy." 
ltforms,however, a very interesting display of the wisdom that has 
planned, and the power that has executed this very simple, but at 
the same time equally wise arrangement of nature ; by which com- 
mon physical causes become subservient to the purposes of life. 
If the destructive cold of winter were permitted to assume its 
utmost severity suddenly, and while the very sensible pores, ves- 
sels and tender organs of the tree are expanded, and freely exer- 
cising the hidden powers of life, (displayed to us by the animation 
produced by it,) death and destruction would follow. Life, how- 
ever, like a well instructed general, finding itself closely pressed 
on every side, gradually retires within its fortress. In this it is 
preserved, by remaining inactive ; until a change in temperature en- 
ables it to resume its former activity, with all the increased vigour 
naturally arising from this long rest ; which, together with the much 
shorter and less perfect rest obtained by an excess of heat in mid- 
summer, is no question one of the causes which enables trees to live 
much longer than do animals. The organs of the latter are con- 
tinually kept in full motion, until so many parts of the machinery 
composed of common matters, is so much worn or exhausted, by the 
friction of perpetual motion, that they cannot perform their func- 
tions, and death ensues. 

We are told that a rest very similar to that obtained by cold for 
trees, &c. in northerly climates, is also obtained in very warm ones, 
by an excess of heat, joined with a deficiency of moisture. This 
seems the more probable, as we see, even in our climate, that in 
midsummer, heat causes the circulation of the sap to progress so 
very tardily, that the bark adheres closely to the sap wood of the 
tree : also that heat and drought united, act much in the same way, 
on more tender vegetation, as frost does. It is evident that plants 



52 

have not been subjected to common physical causes more than man. 
The destruction of the latter by exposure to intense heat or severe 
cold is trivial indeed, when compared with the multitudes who are 
daily cut offin the prime of life, merely by not being careful to 
guard against the consequences arising from a sudden change of 
temperature alone. 

Thus we see that heat and cold produce very similar effects on 
the organs of plants and animals, and that in these respects the ana- 
logy between them is very obvious. 

Although it has not been demonstrated, it is believed by Sir H. 
and many other gentlemen, that the leaves on evergreen trees and 
shrubs are kept alive through the winter by a languid circulation of 
the sap. It would therefore appear, as the result proves that de- 
ciduous trees live through winter, and powerfully exercise all the 
functions of life when a proper temperature will admit this to be 
done, that a languid circulation of the sap may also be kept up in 
them by the principle of life. However, this theory is by no means 
important, as it cannot be more difficult to imagine, that a tree may 
rest or sleep throughout the winter, without obtaining nutriment 
from the circulation of the sap, than that an active animal, accus- 
tomed to eat and drink as frequently, as do the animals who cannot 
live through the winter, without eating and drinking nearly the 
same quantity as they do in the summer, should be so constructed 
or organized, that it may and actually does sleep or rest without 
either eating or drinking through the winter. Or that the powers 
of life may be apparently suspended in the human body, notwith- 
standing the living principle still exists in it, and also acts with 
sufficient energy to prevent putrefaction, until it resumes its usual 
activity, although in many instances no apparent means have been 
employed to stimulate it into action. 

It will be demonstrated in the next chapter, that the vitality of 
most kinds of seed is preserved for ages unhurt; when they have 
been favourably strewed over the soil, and also covered by nature 
beyond the power of vegetation. 

Now if seeds have beeh so constructed that the living principle 
in them may be so long suspended, and after this brought into full 
and eftectual motion or action, merely by being exposed to a favour- 
able temperature, and planted at a proper depth in the soil, why may 
not the organization of trees and shrubs be so constructed, that the 
action of the living principle in them may be also suspended, and 
after this resume its full and. effectual powers when the tempera- 
ture favours the process.** 

We evidently see that the suspension of the vital principle in the 
eggs of the feathered race, in the spawn of lishes, and in the eggs 
of various other animals, does not (unless continued too long,) 
prevent it, when excited by a proper temperature, and other com- 
bining causes, from exercising all the powers of life and animation. 
Why, then, should Sir H. question that the action of the vital 
principle in trees may be also suspended, or caused to progress 



58 

languidly, so long as may best suit the climate and economy of the 
plants ; and after this, when excited by a proper temperature and 
other combining causes, resume the full powers of life and anima- 
tion ? In fact, there seems to be quite as much reason to question 
the one, as there is to question the other. The agency of common 
physical causes in either case, seems to be the same. 

We are told by Sir H. Davy, that what Linnaeus calls the sleep 
of the leaves, appears to depend wholly upon the defect of the ac- 
tion of light and heat, and the excess of the operation of moisture. 
Also, that " This singular but constant phenomenon had never been 
scientifically observed, till the botanist of Upsal was fortunately di- 
rected to it. He was examining particularly a species of lotus, in 
which four flowers had appeared during the day, and he missed two 
in the evening; he soon discovered that these two were hidden in 
the leaves which had closed round them. He took a lanthorn, went 
into his garden and witnessed a series of facts before unknown. 
All the simple leaves of the plants he examined, had an arrange- 
ment totally different from their arrangement in the day ; and the 
greater number of them were seen closed or folded together.^'* 

What may have happened in the garden of the botanist of Up- 
sal, is unknown to me. However, from what I have observed in my 
own garden, where the useful plants common to the country are 
grown, I am disposed to believe that the " singular phenomenon of 
*'the sleep of the leaves" has not yet "been scientifically obser- 
ved." I find but two plants in my garden in which any visible al- 
teration in the position of the leaves takes place at night. 

The leaves of red clover generally turn their under surface up- 
permost at night, and resume the usual position in which they are 
seen in the morning, but I have observed that some of the leaves of 
this plant, in place of turning, defend their upper surfaces by two 
or more of them uniting their surfaces together. The English lambs- 
quarter (so called here) raises up its leaves at night, so that the 
upper surfaces of opposite leaves come in contact, or nearly so, with 
each other. 

I have observed that the leaves growing on the extremities of the 
younger branches of many trees and herbaceous plants, keep more 
or less folded or closed while young, and until they have attained 
some considerable size. These, however remain in the same posi- 
tion through the day as they do in the night, and gradually expand 
as their siz.e increases. It would seem, however, that seeing those 
leaves folded at night, and not giving due attention to them in the 
day, has led to erroneous conclusions. Still, climate and the sea- 
sons may make a difference. My observations were made in the 
latter part of June, and fore part of July, when the nights were un- 
commonly cool for the season, and generally when the plants were 
very wet with dew. 

Sir H. informs us, " The sleep of leaves is, in some cases, capa- 

* See his Lee, on Agr. Chem. pages 65 and 66. 



54 

ble of being produced artificial! j. DecandoIIe made this experi- 
ment on the sensitive plant. By confining it in a dark place in the 
day time, the leaves soon closed ; but on illuminating the chamber, 
with many lampS) they again expanded. So sensible were they to 
the effects of light and radiant heat.* 

Some animals are quite as sensibly affected by the same causes. 
The common farm yard fowl goes to roost in the middle of the daj 
if the sun be considerably eclipsed; but awakens from its sleep, 
descends from its roost, and goes about as usual so soon as the cheer- 
ing rays of the sun banish the gloomy appearance of untimely night. 
The owl and other animals hide themselves from the light, which 
seems to be as offensive to them as is darkness to others. The 
sensibility of the leaves of the sensitive plant is emphatically im- 
pressed by Sir H. who also says, "all leaves elevate themselves on 
the foot stalk during their exposure to the solar light, and as it were 
move toward the sun."t But, as if to blunt the edge of these facts, 
he tells us, "this effect seems, in a great measure, to be dependent 
upon the mechanical and chemical agency of light and heat4 

Why then does he tell us, " the leaves elevate themselves and move 
toward the sun ;" also, that the leaves of the sensitive plant were 
** so sensible of the effects of light and radiant heat?" After grant- 
ing that leaves have the power to " move themselves," and that 
they are also "sensibly affected by the agency of light and heat," 
it is useless to attempt to lessen or abridge those powers If they 
exist at all, animation, and a property suifRciently analogous to what 
is called irritability in animals, to answer all the purposes of life in 
plants, must also exist, notwithstanding Sir Hi tells us, " we should 
not suffer ourselves to be deluded by the very extensive application 
of the word life, to conceive in the life of plants, any power simi- 
lar to that producing the life of animals." Also, that nothing above 
common matter existed in the vegetable economy ; and that " irri- 
tability and animation ought to be excluded. "§ Now this same 
gentleman actually says, in another part of his book, that plants 
are " belonging to animated nature."|| It would, however, seem 
that Sir H. either wrote his lectures in the winter, or neglected 
to examine what occurred among them in his garden after night. If 
this had been done, he would have found, that leaves generally have 
the same power " to elevate themselves on the footstalk" when 
midnight darkness prevails, and when subjected to the " defect of 
the action of heat, and excess of the operation of moisture," as they 
have when "the mechanical and chemical agency of light and heat" 

{)redominate. That is, if the same occurred in Sir H.'s garden as 
lappens in mine, and as I believe takes place wherever vegetation 
exists. This seems to demonstrate, that nothing short of the pow- 
erful principle of life could keep the leaves elevated, when subject- 
ed to the action of powers diametrically opposite. In the day, 

* See his Lcc. on Agr. Chem. page 66. f Idem, page 65. 

ir Idem, page 65. § Idem, page 250. || Idem, page 5i. 



55 

there is heat, and often want of moisture : at night there is the ab- 
straction of the one and the application of the other. 

This day, to wit, the 17th of July, the mercury in Fahrenheit's 
thermometer rose no higher in the shade than 79 : still I observed, 
about eleven o'clock, that some thrifty cabbage plants growing in 
my garden, where the ground was rich, had drooped their leaves very 
considerably, although no lack of moisture prevailed. In the warm- 
est part of the day they drooped still more, and became very flac- 
cid. One plant especially was so much affected, that I doubted 
whether it might not be injured by cut-worms at the root. How- 
ever, about auTiour before sun down, I visited the plants again, and 
found the leaves in general had risen considerably. At sun down, 
most of them appeared as if nothing uncommon had happened. In 
about two hours after, 1 found even the plant that had been most af- 
fected, perfectly restored, and quite wet with dew. 

Now it seems as evident as almofet any other thing, that an excess 
of stimulus, or to use Sir H.'s own terms, (as words never did nor 
never can alter the nature of things,) "an excess of the mechanical 
and chemical agency of light and heat," caused indirect debility in 
the vegetable system, as often occurs in animal s}' stems; and na- 
ture, like a skilful physician, who regardless of learned, but at the 
same time discordant and absurd theories, boldly reduces the tem- 
perature of the system, and the energetic principle of life no longer 
oppressed, enables the leaves to elevate themselves on the foot 
stalks; and not only braves midnight darkness, and "a defect of 
the action of heat, and an excess of the operation of moisture," 
but also profits exceedingly by this very salutary and interesting 
change ; which contributes to establish a striking analogy between 
animals and plants. 

The changes from excess of heat are still more frequent and mani- 
fest in the pompion than in the cabbage. During the heat of the 
day, when the weather is warm, the leaves collapse, and the flov/er 
folds itself up, and they remain in this situation until the evening, 
when the former becomes again expanded, and the latter unfolded. 

Some flowers are so remarked for withdrawing from the heat of 
the sun, that the common names by which they are called are de- 
scriptive of this obvious property. The morning-glory* is found ful- 
ly expanded in the morning, but closes as the neat of the day in- 
creases. The four-o'clock or pretty-by-nightf closes when the heat 
of the sun becomes offensive to it, and expands toward evening when 
the rays of that luminary become milder. To enter into a tedious 
detail of the subject, would be foreign to my purpose. So far, how- 
ever, as my observation extends, the leaves of many more plants 
are " closed or folded together" by an «' excess of heat" than by "a 
defect of the action of heat, and an excess of tiie operation of mois- 
ture." 

The organization of the leaves and flowers of plants seems to be 

• A species of convolvulus. f Also called, marvel of Peru. 



56 

the most perfect and delicate parts of their structure, and, of con- 
sequence, most readily aftected by change. Therefore, an excess 
of heat appears to be more or less offensive to all plants. But that 
degree of heat which proves offensive or injurious to one plant, may 
be very refreshing and salutary to another; and the same may be 
said of " the operation of moisture." 

Maize thrives most luxuriantly in our climate, when the weather 
is very warm, if a sufficiency of moisture also obtains. When mois- 
ture fails to any considerable extent, and the weather is very warm, 
the leaves of this hardy plant curl up in rolls through the heat of the 
day, and expand again in the evening when refreshed with the tlew. 
They are employed through the night in collecting moisture, which 
they convey into the cells formed by that part of the leaf, which 
runs some distance up, and clasps the stalk, previously to its taking 
a slanting direction from it, which inclines upward. When these 
cells are filled with moisture, the overplus runs down the stalk, in 
a dry time, in such abundance, that the ground for two inches or 
more around the stalk, exhibits in the morning the appearance of an 
artificial watering. The leaves have been admirably formed to per- 
form these interesting functions. In the morning, the plant seems 
to be as much refreshed as is a weary traveller, who, after being ex- 
hausted by performing a long journey on foot, has been well re- 
freshed in the evening, and comfortably lodged through the night. 

The traveller when exhausted by exercise and oppressed by heat, 
retires to rest in the shade, during the hottest part of the day. The 
corn plant cannot do this ; but it escapes the too powerful action of 
radical heat on the upper surface of its leaves, by curling them up, 
when the sun becomes very offensive to them. This very interest- 
ing economy of nature checks evaporation ; and sufficient rest is ob- 
tained to prevent any very serious injury, unless the drought should 
happen to continue uncommonly long. The water running down 
the stalks invigorates the roots, and the moisture stored up in the 
cells, is consumed by the plant. As the arm or stem on v/hich the 
ears are formed, grow out from the joint of the stalk at the bottom 
of the cell, and the growth of the ear does not, when the plant is 
healthy, prevent the moisture from running into the cells, or cause 
it to leak out of them, we may clearly see that this moisture is high- 
ly important to the growth of the ear, and the maturity of the grain. 
For when too close planting, or any other cause debilitates the corn 
plant, we often see, after the point of the ear has grown out at the 
mouth of the receptacle or cell, that its vegetative powers are too 
weak to press out the larger parts of it. In this case, it grows fee- 
bly within the cell ; and closes the mouth of it ; and splits that part of 
the leaf which forms it, and also binds the arm on which the ear 
grows to the stalk. Consequently, but little if any moisture can ei- 
ther enter or be retained in the receptacle, and the product, under 
the most favourable circumstances, is a nubbin, and often of so little 
value, that it is not worth gathering. 

In some few instances, we also observe that, in consequence of 



57 

debility, that part of the leaf which forms the cell, and bends the arm 
on which the ear grows fast to the stalk, has not power to cling close- 
ly to it. In this case, the mouth of the cell becomes unusually wide ; 
the whole of it more or less leaky ; and the greater part, at least, of 
the moisture is lost. The effect of this is also a nubbin, and often 
not worth gathering. 

Practice clearly determines that this moisture actually exists in 
the cells ; for it has been the too general custom to pull olfthe abor- 
tive ear shoots, or suckers as they are commonly called, growing at 
least at one joint of the stalk above that in contact with the ground. 
"When this is done, the economy of the cells is very much injured, 
and we see the water running out of them in streams, even until it 
reaches the ground; unless a succession of dewless nights have oc- 
curred previously to this operation. In that case no water follows 
the pulling oiFof the suckers, and the corn plant of course suffers 
much more from drought. But as a very long succession of dew- 
less nights seldom occurs, this plant is as little or perhaps less in- 
jured by drought, than any of the corn plants cultivated by us. 

There is a multitude of annual plants whose leaves clasp their 
stalks as do the leaves of the corn plant; and no question but they 
also derive much advantage from this simple arrangement. But as 
maize is large the economy of it is more readily seen. However, 
as the leaves of a multitude of plants which are very differently con- 
structed, do not " close or fold together" through the day or night, 
no question but there is quite as good reasons why they should con- 
tinue open, as there is for the corn plant to maintain or assume that 
posture; although the advantages they may derive from maintain- 
ing a uniform position are not so readily seen. 

Sir Humphrey informs us, " The ammonia given off from animal 
compounds in putrefaction may be conceived to be formed at the 
time of their decomposition;" and that "except this matter, the 
other products of putrefaction are analogous to those afforded by 
the fermentation of vegetable substances."* The products of the 
decomposition of vegetable substances have been enumerated and 
described by this gentleman and others. They are highly interest- 
ing, in powerfully establishing the very great analogy between ani- 
mals and plants ; but are still vastly more so in the proper use of 
them so far as agriculture is concerned; and this is best ordered 
by harmonizing nature and reason in the application and manage- 
ment of them. 

Sir H. also tells us, " The pistil is the organ which contains the 
rudiments of the seed ; but the seed is never formed as a reproduc- 
tive germ ; without the influence of the pollen, or dust on the an- 
thers." 

" This mysterious impression is necessary to the continued suc- 
cession of the different vegetable tribes. It is a feature which ex- 
tends the resemblances of the different orders of beings, and es- 

• See his Lee. on A^. Chem. pages 277 and 278. 
H 



58 

tablishes, on a great scale, the beautiful analogy of nature."* Also, 
that " Linnseus has the glory of establishing the sexual system, upon 
the basis of minute observations and accurate experiments.'*t 

This is certainly <' establishing the resemblances of the different 
orders of beings on a great scale," but no greater than true. The 
result of the sexual union between the male and female organs of 
plants, and that of animals is, in either case, life : common physical 
agents are in both instances employed, or made subservient to the 
propagation and preservation of this invisible but exceedingly pow- 
erful principle. 

No combination of common physical agents can ever organize 
dead matter so as to fit it to perform the functions of life: conse- 
quently, this and the superior powers of action or animation can 
proceed from no less a cause than life itself. Not that life which is 
set, and kept in motion by common physical causes, as is the fer- 
menting liquor in a brewer's vat. 

However, notwithstanding these obvious facts, and what I have 
just now quoted from Sir H.'s lectures, he tells us, that " In calling 
forth the vegetable functions, common physical agents alone seem, 
to operate ;" and that " nothing above common matter exists in the 
vegetable economy." 

This gentleman says "The pores in the fibres of the roots of 
plants are so small, that it is with difficulty they can be discovered 
by the microscope; it is not, therefore, probable, that solid substan- 
ces can pass into them from the soil. I tried an experiment on this 
subject; some impalpable powdered charcoal was placed in a phial 
containing pure water, in which a plant of peppermint was growing, 
the roots of the plant were pretty generally in contact with the coal. 
The growth of the plant was very vigorous during a fortnight, 
when it was taken out of the phial : the roots were cut through in 
different parts ; but no carbonaceous matter could be discovered in 
them, nor were the smallest fibres bhickened by the charcoal, though 
this must have been the case had the charcoal been absorbed in a 
solid form. No substance is more necessary to plants than carbo- 
naceous matter ;\ and if this cannot be introduced into the organs 
of plants except in a state of solution, there is every reason to 
suppose that other substances less essential will be in the same 
case."§ 

The bark of the smaller roots seems to have been formed to expand 
and contract much more readily, than that of the branches and twigs 
of the same size. The bark of the latter is not commonly so soft, 
whether it be rough or smooth ; neither is it any thing like so elastic. 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chein. page 69. f Idem, page 70. 

+ This experiment ulone should have taught Sir H. that he was egregiously 
mistaken in supposing, that no substance " is more necessary to plants than car- 
bonaceous matter;" especially cliarcoal when fully formed, and of consequence 
stripped of nearly all the decomposable animal and vegetable matters, which 
alone furnish food for either plants or animals. 

§ See his Lee, on Agr. Chem. pag'es 2G9 and 270, 



59 

The uood of the smaller roots is also generally much more flexible 
than that of the branches and twigs of the same size. In fact, the 
construction of the smaller roots and fibres seems well calculated to 
contract and expand.^ Therefore the pores in them may be much 
more considerably expanded by the principle of life, stimulated into 
action by the natural wants and appetite of the plant, than Sir H. 
(who relies on common physical agents) seems to imagine : especi- 
ally as the organization of them does not seem to be understood, 
and may, like that of certain parts of some animals, be calculated 
to expand and contract considerably, in proportion to the size 
of the fibres or root. There is a wide difterence between the 
size of the common snakes which inhabit our fields and that of a 
very large ox ; still we find that the former swallow animals whole 
and entire which measures more round their bodies than do their 
own; and that the ox is often choked and sometimes killed, by 
attempting to swallow much less substances, when hunger urges 
him to eat too greedily. 

The economy of the snake should also teach us, that the organs 
of plants, as well as the organs of animals, act in perfect unison. 
As unerring wisdom has ordered this animal to swallow its food 
without mastication, its digestive organs are so amazingly pow- 
erful, that the teeth of squirrels (than which not many things in 
nature are harder) are found, after the snake has been killed and 
opened, so very soft, that there seems to be every reason to believe, 
that the teeth as well as the bones of the animals swallowed by him, 
are eventually as well digested as is the flesh of them. 

The small size of the pores in the roots and fibres of plants, 
seems to be a very wise provision of nature. As they were formed 
to live within the earth, if the pores had been made large, they 
would not have been so well calculated to gather nutriment, with- 
out taking up with it more earthy matters than could be well applied 
in forming the structure of the plants. It would also appear, that 
the provision which has been made for animals to get rid of solid 
excrementitious matters does not exist in the structure of plants : 
therefore it became proper that the organization of the mouths and 
tubes by which this nutriment was gathered and conducted into 
their system, should be small. 

It is also worthy of remark, that charcoal, when reduced to an 
impalpable powder, seems to be a less difficult substance to be ta- 
ken up by the pores in the roots of plants, and conveyed by them, 
than is the earth, which is, after it has been reduced to the same 
state, (either by natural causes or cultivation,) much heavier than 
the coal; still no traces of the charcoal could be discovered in the 
mint plant by Sir H. From this it would appear that, however 
useful pure carbon may be in forming the structure of plants, that 
when this substance is incorporated with undecomposed (highly 
scorched) vegetable matter or coal, it is rejected by plants ; at least 
so far as the organization of their roots will permit this to be done. 
Also that the power to reject injurious matters in a solid form is 



60 

much greater than when presented in solution; for even poisonous 
substances, when dissolved in water, are so freely taken up by the 
thirsty plant confined in them that death speedily ensues. In fact, 
it would appear that plants have no more power to separate and 
reject injurious substances held in solution by water, than have 
animals ; and that thirst urges both to drink, be the consequence 
what it may when no other water can be had. 

It is probable, that in common, but little unfermented animal and 
vegetable matter is taken up by plants, as the materials which fur- 
nish it are generally in a state of fermentation and decomposition ; 
but when copious and long continued rains occur, and fermentation 
and decomposition are greatly retarded in consequence of too little 
heat to favour the process, it would seem that animal and vege- 
table matter is conveyed by water through the soil in simple solution, 
and that plants cannot select putrescent matters so effectually, as 
not to be compelled to take up matters that have not been ferment- 
ed. For we see when much rain has fallen, and the weather is 
too cool to favour fermentation, vegetation progresses languidly, and 
many plants turn sallow, and look very feeble and sickly. That 
plants do drink water in which unfermented vegetable matter has 
been infused, is seen by their being tinged red, when placed in 
infusions of madder previously to the fermentation of the liquid. 

If Sir H.'s discordant system had not compelled him to contradict 
himself so often, it would really seem strange, that he should tell 
us, "The pores in the roots of plants, are so small, it is probable 
that the solid substances cannot pass into them from the soil." He 
elsewhere says ♦' The earths found in plants are four ;"* also, that 
" they differ in the same species of vegetation when it is raised on 
different soils ;"t likewise, that " plants growing on a soil incapable 
of supplying them with sufficient manure, or dead organized matter, 
are in general very low, and their woody fibre abounds in earth."t 
This shows that the earth found in plants is furnished by the soil 
in which the plants grow; and common sense dictates, that they 
could not find their way into the plants, by any other passage but 
through the pores in their roots. 

Surely this gentleman must have forgotten that he had told us 
" Gypsum is not taken up in corn crops, or crops of peas and beans ; 
but where lands are exclusively devoted to pasturage and hay it is 
continually consumed."§ 

♦ See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 113. f Idem, page 126. 

+ Idem, page 263. § Idem, page 333. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The heart-wood of a tree proved to be alive, and increasing annually in size It 
is also shown, that the pores in the wood appear to be well constructed to 
admit a lateral circulation from the alburnum to the pith. Linnaeus's and 
Dr. Hales's theories of the pith considered. The changes in timber explained. 

Sir H. Davy says, " The wood of trees is composed of an exter- 
nal or living part, called the alburnum, or sap-wood, and an inter- 
nal or dead part, the heart-wood.* 

Dr. Darwin informs us, " When old oaks, or willows, lose by 
decay almost all their solid internal wood, it frequently happens, 
that a part of the shell of the stem continues to flourish with a few 
healthy branches. Whence it appears, that no part of the tree 
is alive but the buds, and the bark, and the root fibres ; that the 
bark is only an intertexture of the caudexes of the numerous buds, 
as they pass down to shoot their radicals into the earth ; and that 
the solid timber of a tree ceases to be alive ; and is then only of 
service to support a numerous family of buds in the air. 

" A bud 01 a tree, therefore, like a vegetable arising from a seed, 
consists of three parts; the plumula or leaf, the radical or root-fibres, 
and the part which joins these together, which is called by Linnaeus 
the caudex, when applied to entire plants ; and may, therefore, be 
termed caudex gemmee when applied to buds."t 

" As the spring advances, the umbilical vessels, after having 
drunk up the reservoirs of nutriment, which were deposited about 
the roots, and having thus nourished and expanded the new leaves, 
cease to act; and the alburnum gradually changes into hard wood, 
called the heart of the tree : which no longer possesses vegetable 
life ; and is now only useful to elevate and sustain aloft the swarm 
of biennial plants, which cover it."^: "But the umbilical vessels of 
the alburnum, possess the properties of capillary tubes, or of a 
sponge after they are extinct, and cease to act as umbilical vessels; 
and thus they occasionally attract moisture or suffer it to pass 
through them mechanically. "§ " The existence of capillary tubes 
in dead sap-wood is visible in a piece of dry cane, which permits 
water or smoke to pass through it; and in the exhausted receiver 
of an air-pump both water and quicksilver may be made readily to 
pass through pieces of the dry alburnum of wood by the pressure 
of the atmosphere."|| 

• See his Leo. on Agr. Chem. page 60. 

I See his Phytol. pages 2 and 3. 

+ Idem, page 162. § Idem, page 162. 

i Idem, pages 163, and 164. 



62 

"The buds producing flowers arc each an individual being as 
well as the leaf buds above described, though they are probably not 
so easily capable of transplantation into the bark of other trees by 
inoculation."* 

" The caudex of perennial herbaceous plants consists of a broad 
plate, buried beneath the soil to protect them from frost ; while the 
caudex of buds of trees consist of a long vascular cord, extending 
from the bud on the branch to the radical beneath the earth, and 
endures the winter frost without injury."! 

To a plain practical farmer in the back-woods who sees nature 
as she is, and who has not science to depend upon, nor is infatuated 
with the wild irrational theories which have been too hastily built 
on it, but endeavours to make nature, reason, common sense, and 
observation alone his guides, nothing can be more preposterous 
than the idea, that " no part of a tree is alive but the buds and the 
bark, and the root fibres ; and that the solid timber ceases to be 
alive; and is only of service to support a numerous family of buds 
in the air ; or as the Doctor says, in another part of his book, " is 
now only useful to elevate and sustain aloft the swarm of biennial 
plants which cover it." 

However, the Doctor seems to have endeavoured to form a theory 
consistent in all its parts, as he tells us, " the buds producing flow- 
ers are each an individual being, as well as the leaf buds ;" and 
that this individual bud or beings as well as the leaf bud or being, 
is so completely separated from the parent tree, that "the caudex 
of buds of trees consists of a long vascular cord, extending from 
the bud on the branch to the radical beneath the earth." 

The Doctor does not tell us by what method he was enabled to 
trace the very long " vascular cord," from the most remote " radi- 
cal," to the " individual being^^ or " bud" to which it belonged, 
growing on the uppermost branch of the parent tree ; although it 
seems to have required great skill and ingenuity to perform this 
extensive, and seemingly very complicated operation. The vas- 
cular cords must be very numerous, especially in the elm; for if 
Dr. Willich be right, in what he says has been established by 
practice in forming of hedges, it would appear, that a great number 
of vascular cords extended not only from the radical to the bud, 
but also from the radical to the germinating eyes, or " individual 
beings," existing in the body of the parent tree, which must form 
a ver}^ complex system of " vascular cords," or cords upon cords, 
so intimately blended or intermixed, that it would be exceed- 
ingly difficult even for a philosopher to trace any one of them. 
This gentleman informs us, *• when elm-timber is felled in the 
spring, the chips made in trimming the trees are to be sown, and 
harrowed in, as practised with corn. Every chip that has an eye 
or bud, will speedily shoot like the cuttings of potatoes ; they pos- 

• See his Phytol. page 5. f Idem, pag-e 4. 



63 

sess this farther advantage, that five or six stems will generally 
rise from the same chip ; and, after being cut down to within three 
inches of the ground they multiply their side shoots and form a 
thicker hedge, than any other method hitherto practiced."* Now 
it is evident, that such a multitude of eyes or " beings" will require 
a multitude of" vascular cords." 

Whether the word " trimming" means hewing the timber, or 
chopping off and cutting up the limbs, or both, is unknown to me. 
But if the chips obtained by either of those means, grow in sufficient 
numbers to make it an object to sow them, it would seem that the 
organization or eye formed in the solid wood of the tree germinates; 
of consequence that the wood is not dead. 

However, of this I know nothing, either by practice or observa- 
tion. But it is well known where I now reside, that the red elm 
(as it is called here) is readily killed by girdling, Also, that it is 
otherwise with what is called the white elm. This last, with the 
sugar tree, some other maples, and several other kinds of trees, 
after being girdled as deep as it may be done, without running a 
great risk of their breaking oif where the girdle is formed, some- 
times live for years after this operation. It has therefore become a 
common practice, in place of girdling trees of this description, to 
pile heaps of brush and other wood around them, and destroy their 
vegetative powers by burning. Still it often happens that, notwith- 
standing the bark has been burnt oft" as high up as the intense heat 
of the fire extends, and the sap-wood severely scorched or corroded, 
that the trees live long enough to be very injurious to the farmer's 
crops. It therefore appears that even fire does not effectually kill 
trees of this description, unless the degree of heat applied be suf- 
ficient to destroy the interior organization of them. 

Trees of this kind will often put out leaves, year after year, un- 
til the water which runs down the body of the tree, and settles where 
it has been girdled, causes the wood at this place to decay, and the 
body of the tree to break off" at that point, and fall to the ground. 

Long practice has taught the back woods farmer, that notwith- 
standing some kinds of trees linger long after being girdled, all of 
them eventually die, provided the girdle be carefully cut through 
the sap into the heart-wood of the tree. The oak, pine, hickory, 
chesnut, and many other trees, are readily killed by girdling; but 
some of these kinds linger longer than others. From which it clear- 
ly appears, that the sap-wood, bark, and leaves are the great vas- 
cular system in which the nutritious matters gathered by the roots, 
and most probably by, the leaves, and absorbent vessels in the bark 
also, circulate, until it is properly prepared ; and that after this, 
it is from thence diffused, and eftectually applied, not only to the 
exterior growth of the tree, its seeds, &c. but also to the interior 
growth of it. This will, I trust, be made manifest, notwithstanding 
we have been assured that the heart-wood of a tree is dead. 

• See Domes. Encyc art. Elm. 



64 

As some trees linger long after they have been effectually girdled, 
it would seem that the little circulation of the fluids between the 
roots, and the buds which in this case takes place, must pass through 
the heart-wood at that part of the body where the girdle is formed. 
The blowing through a cooper's stave, made of well seasoned 
heart-wood, determines that the pores continue open in the solid 
heart-wood of the tree. 

The result of girdling, however, proves that after the great ave- 
nue for the circulation of the sap has been cut off by this operation, 
death always sooner or later ensues. Yet I would advise those who 
are fond of making experiments on interesting subjects, to try whe- 
ther covering the girdled part so soon as the girdle is formed, with 
a proper mollifying plaster, well calculated to exclude the air, would 
not restore the tree; as in cases of great injury, such plasters have 
produced surprising effects. 

Dr. Darwin attributed the general circulation of the sap " to the 
living powers of the plant, and stimulus of air upon the leaves, and 
moisture upon the roots."* However, as he considered " no part of 
a tree alive but the buds, and bark, and the root fibres," this error 
led him to refer the circulation of the fluids between the living and 
what he calls the dead part of the tree, to common physical agents. 

He tells us, <' the umbilical vessels of the alburnum possess the 
properties of capillary tubes, or of a sponge after they are extinct, 
and cease to act as umbilical vessels; and thus they occasionally 
attract moisture, or suffer it to pass through them mechanically; 
whilst the new bark which consists of an intertexture of the cau- 
dexes of each bud with their radicals, may occasionally absoi-b this 
moisture from the capillary vessels of the alburnum, which may be 
compared to the upper stratum of the soil attracting by capillary 
power the moisture from the ground immediately underneath it, 
which may exhale into the atmosphere, or be imbibed by the roots of 
vegetables by the superior livingpower of their absorbent mouths."t 
In the following page, the Doctor tells us, " that the vessels of the 
alburnum, after their vegetable life is extinct, possess a power of 
capillary attraction of the sap-jtiice, or permitting it to pass through 
them occasionally." 

Now I must confess that the advantages which may be derived, 
from the circulation of the sap-juice, between the living and dead 
parts of a tree, is beyond my comprehension ; although I can readi- 
ly see, (and I trust demonstrate,) that important advantages are 
derived from that circulation af nutritious matters,^ which the result 
proves are actually conveyed from the great, vascular system of a 
tree, to the most interior parts of it. 

The girdled timber is often used in the back woods for building, 

• See Sir H. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Cham, page 33. 
■|- See his Phytol. page 162. 

\ No question but the matters calculated to form the increased structure of" 
the interior parts of the tree, are also conveyed in the same way. 



65 

fencing, firewood, &c. It becomes so hard that our wood choppers 
say, it requires as much labour to cut and split two cords of dead 
oak as three cords of the same kind of wood when it is green. The 
workers in wood do not find the girdled timber any thing like so 
tough or flexible as green wood. It splits much freer in conse- 
quence ot the grain being very brittle. When split, however, the 
grain, in place of exhibiting that lively appearance seen in green 
wood, looks dead and is often marked with spots denoting approach- 
ing decay. These spots seem to proceed from the timber being so 
large that the sap cannot evaporate freely from the interior parts 
of the tree. If timber be placed in those parts of a building from 
which the air is much excluded, before it has been properly sea- 
soned, the dry rot quickly ensues. Mr. Bordley tells us, "a pair 
of cart wheels, as soon as made, were tarred over thickly, and set 
up, resting on the side of a house a year or two. When put to use 
the felloes broke and showed a sound surface, and the rest a dark,* 
rotten coarse powder. Here the unneasorifd wood being coated over 
so as to obstruct the sap from evaporating, the sap fermented, it is 
presumed, and rotted the inside of the solid parts of the timber: 
the shell or outside of the timber having been seasoned or lost its 
sap, before the tar was applied. In forests, I have stepped on the 
bodies of prostrate trees, which appeared sound to the eye : but have 
broke through the seasoned crust to a mass of rotten powder."! 

A few weeks since, an oak was chopped down near this place, to 
make the hammer shaft of a forge. It is said the growths were 
counted, and that the tree was more than five hundred years old, 
although much less than many other oaks growing in that neigh- 
bourhood. Now, it would appear that a part of the heart-wood of 
this tree, must have existed about five hundred years ago; and that 
this heart-wood has been, (if Sir H. Davy's, and Dr. Drawin's the- 
ories be correct,) dead, and entombed, during about five centuries, 
and other dead wood annually added to it : and if what we are told 
of the great age of some trees be true, those additions might have 
been annually continued for five hundred years yet to come, if the 
tree had not been cut down. 

We all see that after the living principle becomes extinct in the 
animal or vegetable system, that system either sooner or later 
sinks into decay. The bones of animals are the hardest parts of 
them, and it is long before the solid parts of them crumble to pieces; 
but the "decomposable animal matter"! contained in them runs 
quickly into decay. 

The woody fibre is the most solid part of a tree, especially the 
heart-wood: consequently, it is slowly decomposed, unless it be 

• When trees lie In our forests until decomposed, as far as was Mr. Bordley's 
cart wheels, the powder produced by decomposition, is of a redish colour, not 
so dark as Spanish brown, nor so bright as red ochre. 

■\ See his work on Husb. pages 459 and 460. 

i See Sir H. Davy's Leo. on Agr. Chem. page 290. 

I 



66 

placed in a situation which greatly favours this process. There are, 
however, a variety of vegetable matters intimately blended with 
the woody fibre, which are vastly more readily decomposed than it. 
The hasty decomposition which took place, in the heart-wood of 
which Mr. Bordley's cart wheels were made, clearly determines, 
that these matters powerfully assist, and greatly hasten, the de- 
composition of the woody fibre with which they are always intimate- 
ly mixed. 

That the sap continues to exist in the heart-wood of a tree, as 
long as the tree is alive, is well known to all the workers in wood 
in the back-woods : as is also the means to get speedily rid of it. 
Various causes seem to compel them to do their work with wood 
that has recently been cut down. 

The mill-vvrijiht selects the cogs for his wheels, from the heart of 
the hardest wood. Notwithstanding the pores of the wood are close, 
and its texture very firm, experience has taught him, that unless 
the sap be extracted, his work will not stand. He therefore shapes 
out his cogs, puts them into a large kettle, and boils them in water, 
until the sap is thoroughly extracted. As the water evaporates 
quickly after the cogs have been spread out to dry, the process is 
very quick. 

The larger timber that mu?t be seasoned previously to its being 
used, is by some put into a pond or run of water, and after the sap 
has been extracted, it is dried. By others, it is placed in that way 
which is best calculated to keep a fire constantly burning under- 
neath it. This causes the watery particles of the sap speedily to 
evaporate, and the more solid matters of it to inspissate and be- 
come hard by sudden heat, so as nearly to fill up the pores, which 
have been greatly compressed, by the shrinking of the woody fibre. 
The sap thus cured is prevented from fermenting and rotting the 
wood, and also from evaporating. Wood seasoned in this last way, 
is less liable to imbibe moisture, and swell, or shrink by parting with 
it, than is wood seasoned by boiling, soaking, or exposing it to the 
atmospheric air, rain, &c. The pores of the wood are not near so 
well closed by the three last mentioned processes as they are by the 
timber being dried in a kiln. 

It is impossible to believe, that the workers in wood could have 
been so stupid, as to perpetuate, from time immemorial, the very 
laborious practice of extracting, expelling, or consolidating the sap 
in the heart -wood, not only of young timber, but also of that obtained 
from a tree of five hundred years old, if the sap did not exist in 
sufficient quantities to greatly injure the durability of the timber, 
as well as the durability and usefulness of the articles formed of it. 

Now as practice clearly determines that the sap exists in the heart- 
wood of old as well as in that of young trees, how does it happen, 
if this wood be dead, that fermentation does not destroy it, as it 
did the same description of wood in Mr. Bordley's cart wheels ? 
Those who are not conversant with trees, may urge that in the case 
of Mr. Bordley's wheels, a sufficiency of air was admitted to favour 



67 

the process of fermentation ; but that the alburnum and bark which 
closeiy envelope the heart-wood in a tree, may exclude the atmos- 
pheric air so effectually, that fermentation cannot take place. Some 
accidental causes expose the heart-wood of trees so much to the in- 
jurious effects of moisture and air, that it sinks into decay. There 
are, however, less powerful causes which would produce the same 
injurious effects if it were not alive. The wind-shakes, as they are 
commonly called, seem to be exactly calculated to effect the de- 
struction of the heart-wood if it were a dead substance. These 
commonly commence near the but, and often run eight or ten feet 
up the body of the tree. The split frequently extends from the out- 
side surface to the middle of the heart-wood. They seldom if ever 
close, being, as it is supposed, kept open by the agitation occasion- 
ed by the action of the wind on the top of the tree. They rarely 
become wide, but are sufl&ciently extended to determine, that air 
passes through them, in sufficient quantities to favour the fermenta- 
tion of the woody fibre if it were dead ; for both sides of the rent 
become much darker coloured than the fresh wood of the tree. 
However, a tree thus affected, seems to grow as well, and continues 
as free from decay as any other. Whether the name of these rents 
is descriptive of the cause that forms them, is unknown to me; but 
many of the trees growing in our forests are wind-shaken. It is 
thought by numbers here, that intense frost splits the trees, and 
that the rents are kept open by the action of the wind on the top of 
them. When the nights are intensely cold and calm, we often hear 
a loud cracking noise in various directions through the forest. It 
is then said by my neighbours that the frost is splitting the trees. 
Be this however as it may, the trees are split in the way that has 
been described ; and these rents continue open, without any appa- 
rent injury, either to the growth or health of them. 

Trees do not split any thing like so freely in any other direction, 
as from the circumference to the centre. When shingles, palling, 
lath, &c. are to be made, the tree is first quartered, and the quar- 
ters after this split into bolts of a proper size ; always taking care 
to split them in the same direction as the quarters were split. 
The shingles, &c. are also split in the same way. 

Now as this mode of splitting, immediately crosses the grain 
which denotes the age of the tree, the ready splitting of the wood 
in this direction seems to determine, that the powerful principle of 
life acting in a favourable temperature, may also readily expand the 
woody fibre, so as to admit the lateral circulation of the sap, from 
the alburnum or bark to the pith of the tree. This seems to be 
confirmed by what takes place in the ends of the logs with which 
our houses or cabins are built. In hewing the two sides of them, the 
pith is commonly left in or near the centre of the log. The action 
of the sun and air on the ends of the logs, causes the grain of the 
wood to separate, and we observe, that the largest cracks or open- 
ings which are made by the agents, run from the pith toward that 
part where the circumferences of the tree existed before the tim- 



68 

ber had been hewn. But as we also see that the grain of the wood 
is minutely separated by smaller cracks or openings, throHghout 
the whole "of the end of the log, there seems to be every reason to 
believe, that the sap circulates through the whole of the woody fibre 
in a tree. This appears to be confirmed, as the same is seen in the 
ends of our fence rails, after being some time exposed to the influ- 
ence of the sun and air ; and the result in a living tree demonstrates 
that these conclusions are just. 

Having attentively observed that the annual growths of the heart- 
wood of trees, were much closed together as they approached near- 
er towards the alburnum, and that in young trees after the heart- 
wood had been distinctly formed, the annual growths from the pith 
to the circumference, were vafitbj closer together than the same 
growths in older trees: also, that the annual growths in the heart- 
wood of these younger as well as older trees, were not near so wide 
apart as they approach towards the alburnum, as they were nearer 
to the pith, I was led to believe that the theories founded on the 
heart-wood of a tree being'dead, might be readily proved errone- 
ous ; by means so obvious and simple, that every person living where 
he could see timber of different ages cut down, would be convinced 
by occular demonstration, that the heart wood of a healthy tree is so 
far. from being dead, that it grows annually, until the tree attains 
its full age. After which, trees, as well as animals, sooner or later 
decline; and however long either may linger, death evidently closes 
the scene. 

To substantiate this fact so that it might be understood, it was 
considered necessary to select trees of different sixes, but of the 
same kind of wood, and grown on a similar soil, and to measure the 
diameter of each clear of the bark. Also, to count the annual growths 
of each of them. The diameter of three white pine trees, which had 
been recently cut down, was measured, and the annual growths of 
each of them carefully counted. The wood of the smallest tree mea- 
sured six inches and three quarters across the but-end of itj the 
annual growths were very close together, and counted one hundred 
and twenty-seven. The next larger tree measured thirteen inches ; 
the annual growths in it were considerably wider apart than in the 
first mentioned tree, as the reader will very readily imagine when 
he is told they counted only one hundred and sixty, and considers 
the great diflereiice in the diameters of the trees. The next and 
largest tree measured two feet, ten inches and three quarters across 
the but of it. In this tree the annual growths were vastly wider 
apart than in the second tree, wiiich is also very readily imagined 
as the diameter of it more than doubled that of the other, and the 
annual growths counted only one hundred and seventy-five. 

In trees of the same kind, measuring about four feet in diameter 
across the but, the annual growths are still much wider apart than 
in trees of the last mentioned size, but as none of this size has been 
lately cut down here, the growths have been so much defaced by 
time, and the turpentine running out from the pores, that they could 



69 

not be counted with suflScient correctness to form an exact estimate 
of then). 

To comment on facts so obvious, would be useless, especially as 
every person who resides near to where timber is cut down, has it 
in his power to examine these facts for himself; and no ques<^ion af- 
ter he has satisfied himself on this very interesting subject, but he 
will agree with me, that if the heart-wood of a tree were dead, it 
could not increase so very much in size, in the course of fifteen 
years, as it certainly did in the largest of the three pines mentioned 
above: particularly the annual growths, as they approach near to 
the alburnum, are often but little more than lines. * Sir H. Davy 
says, that Linnaeus conceived the pith performed for the plant the 
same functions as the brain and nerves in animated beings. He 
considered it as the organ of irritability, and the seat of life. •' The 
latest discoveries have proved, that these two opinions are equally 
erroneous. Mr. Knight has removed the pith in several young trees, 
and they continue to live and increase. It is evidently then only 
an organ of secondary importance. "f 

Sir H. must mean, that Mr. Knight "removed the pith in the 
trunks of several young trees ;" and perhaps from some of the larger 
branches also. If he had removed it from the roots and radical 
fibres, and likewise from the smaller branches, twigs, and buds, the 
plants would have been so mangled that they could not live. 

This being the case, Sir H. should have recollected, that plants 
are much more tenacious of life than are animals. As Mr. Knight's 
operations did not so materially injure the great vascular system 
through which the sap more especially pusses, the pith remaining 
in the roots, radical fibres, small branches, twigs, and buds, might 
have been fully sufficient to perform the important function which 
Linnaeus assigns to it. Particularly as we see, without the aid of ex- 
periment, that both large and small trees do perform these functions, 
after causes (which do not seem to be correctly or fully understood,) 
have removed, by decay, much more of the pith from the trunks, 
roots and branches of them, than Mr. Knight could possibly have 
done safely even if that part of a tree be of no more consequence 
in the economy of it than any other part : consequently, Mr. Knight's 
experiments have not proved that Linnaeus's " opinions are errone- 
ous," or that the powers ascribed by Dr. Hales to the pith, are vi- 
sionary. In fact, these experiments prove nothing more than every 
man who has been conversant with trees, has known from time im- 
memorial. It is, however, very observable, that gentlemen intent 
on becoming scientifically acquainted with nature, are too often 
so regardless of her simple and very obvious economy, that they 
make elaborate experiments to ascertain facts, which are well known 
to every person who is practically conversant with the subject they 

* The annual growths, as they are usually called, increased in width in the 
heart-wood, in due proportion to the increased size of tlte trees, 
t See his Lee, on Agr. Chem. page 62. 



70 

wish to elucidate. And after these gentlemen have discovered what 
they wish to know, (or, as was the case with Mr. Knight, merely 
imagine this has been done,) they very often too hastily form erro- 
neous systems, either on real facts, or on such facts as are only sup- 
posed to exist. As much attention, investigation, and talent, are 
frequently displayed, not only in the progress of these experiments, 
but also in a multitude of other things, the reputation of the philo- 
sopher appears to stamp even his errors with the broad seal of in- 
trinsic value: consequently these errors are but too frequently adopt- 
ed by other gentlemen of distinguished talents, without being first 
investigated by them. Hence it is, that we have so long and often 
been told, by different gentlemen, that the heart-wood of a tree is 
dead, and that nothing above common matter exists in the vegetable 
economy. But to return. 

" Dr. Darwin, when speaking of a bud, observes, " It consists, first, 
of a central organization, or caudex, like the corculum of a seed, 
which contains the rudiments of arteries, veins, absorbent vessels, 
and glands, with an internal pith or brain " 

I have already mentioned the importance which Dr. Hales and 
Linnteus attach to the pith. Although neither of these gentlemen's 
opinions have, and perhaps never may be, confirmed exactly as they 
have stated them, it would appear they had very good reasons to 
induce them to believe, that the pith, if not the seat of life, is highly 
important to the preservation of it. We may observe, that even 
where the pith is most exposed to the severities of the winter, it 
wonderfully shields or defends the principle of life ; as notwith- 
standing the frosts sometimes greatly injure the small branches, 
twigs, and buds of trees, the principle of life seems generally to re- 
main unhurt in them, although it is defended from the inclemency 
of the weather, by a very slender covering. In place of being in- 
jured by this seemingly very severe exposure, it appears that so soon 
as the temperature, either in the latter part of the winter, or in the 
spring, favours the action of the powerful principle of life, in the 
small branches, twigs, and buds, it acts with all that increased en- 
ergy which is the natural consequence of rest; and that as the change 
in the temperature is not so soon felt in the interior parts of the 
tree, the springs of vegetation are first set in motion, where the 
inclemency of the weather has been most severe. For we may ob- 
serve that the uppermost buds on trees swell in size, and put out into 
leaf, sooner than the buds beneath them. 

I have seen plants of maize growing on poor ground, and of con- 
sequence debilitated, entirely destroyed by the same frost, that did 
but little comparative injury to strong and vigorous plants of the 
same description, growing near to them, but on a rich soil. Wheat 
growing on a thin soil is often destroyed by frost, through the winter, 
while that growing near to it, but where the ground is rich, escaped 
injury. 

The vigour of plants, or life, like that of animals, seems to depend 
upon the quantity of nourishment, and the health of the parts des- 



71 

lined to preserve it from the contingencies of the system. But to 
say precisely what life is, or where it absolutely resides, is perhaps 
impossible. Experience proves, that in the animal system some 
parts are more essential to the continuance of life than others, and 
why may not this be the case with vegetables ? And until it be 
proved that the seat of life in them is not in the pith, it may be as 
well to believe that it resides there, as in any other part of their 
organization. 

I will now transcribe what was published by me in 1816, in Mr. 
Poulsons's paper, on the changes in timber ; and make some further 
remarks on that subject. 

Mr. Poulson. The change in timber which takes place in our fo- 
rests, has been the cause of controversy, which seems to have ended 
without satisfactory information. Juilge Peters says, '• I am charged 
by the reviewmaker, with impiety and unphilosophical absurdity, 
and sentiments which I never held, to wit, that new and spontaneous 
productions are brought into existence by a new order of things."* 

I shall not be umpire between the Judge and the British Review- 
ers. What he has written and sanctioned on the subject, ought to 
determine the question.! My residence, however, in the back-woods, 
induces me to think, the changes in timber, &c. may be very readily 
explained on simple and rational principles. Consequently, such 
as do not militate against either revelation, philosophy, or common 
sense. 

The changes in timber and plants have beengenerally well de- 
scribed in the first volume of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia 
Agricultural Society ; but the causes which produce this effect have 
been misunderstood. 

The wisdom of the great Creator is wonderfully displayed in the 
formation of seeds. The tender texture of them is, for the most part, 
as capable of withsianding the destroying hand of time, as if they 
were formed of the most durable substances : provided they be per- 
mitted to remain where nature scatters them. This is best seen in 
the back-woods, where the rude hand of man has not marred the 
face of nature. Still we might have seen in our older settlements, 
that the seeds of the grasses, (on which the support of innumerable 
animals, great and small, principally depends,) have been so con- 
structed that art cannot annihilate them, so far as to prevent na- 
ture, when the grounds are left to be managed by her, from spreading 
this necessary provision over the soil: and also to effect proper 
changes of vegetation even there. After a bad system of husbandry 
has impoverished the ground so much that even the seed of white 
clover (which will grow in a very thin soil) can no longer vegetate, 
if gypsum be applied, the ground is quickly covered with that grass. 

♦ See Mem- Phllad. Agr. Soc vol. ii. page 360. 

+ See vol. i. of the same work, for what Mr. Peters has said on this subject ; 
and also Dr. C. Caldwell's letter to him, which was published in the same book. 



72 

If enriching manure be spread over the clover, it is soon rooted out 
by green grass, sometimes called blue grass. It is also a hardy na- 
tive : but as this plant cannot find sufficient nutriment in a ihin soil, 
the seed remains dormant until the ground be enriched. 

But to return to the forest. Some seeds are calculated to be 
wafted far by the wind. Water sweeps off and carries many of 
them to distant shores. Numbers are also scattered widely by 
birds and quadrupeds. Still the effects produced by these causes 
are partial, and very trivial. The changes are principally effected 
by the seeds of scattering plants, that are always seen growing in 
greater or smaller numbers, among the plants that may happen very 
generally to prevail on the soil where the change is produced : or 
from seeds of other plants which had not, for a long time before, 
appeared on the soil, and which had been so deepl)- buried, by a 
long continued fall of the foliage, as well as the branches and bo- 
dies of the plants, which had grown tliere, that they could not vege- 
tate, until the thickness of this covering had been reduced by burn- 
ing of the woods, or the cultivation of the soil. 

Burning quickly reduces the covering. As the Indian, as well as 
the white hunter, selects a dry time for setting fire to the woods, the 
timber is also very often destroyed, together with all the seed, within 
the reach of this destructive element. The sun being freely admit- 
ted, the seed, which had been deeply buried for ages, vegetates and 
comes up. The plants that in this case appear, are, for the most 
part, different from those that were destroyed by the burning, and 
from the prevailing timber in the neighbourhood. 

When the new crop happens to be one of the very durable woods, 
we have sometimes direct testimony that similar timber to the 
young plants had existed there; as the remains of the same kind 
of vvood are frequently found among the fallen timber. 

Hence it is that in clearing of land in this neighbourhood, where 
white and spruce pines are generally the prevailing timber, locust 
quickly springs up in abundance where the log iieaps were burned, 
but no where else in the clearing. The intense heat occasioned by the 
burning of so large a body of coinbustible matter, within so small a 
space, seldom fails to reduce the covering sufficiently to admit the 
seed to vegetate. The remains of the fallen locust clearly prove 
that this kind of timber formerly prevailed, or was at least much 
more plentiful than it is to be found at the present time. As the 
locust seems to be nearly as durable as red cedar, much time ^ad 
elapsed since it prevailed. Yellow pine either preceded or follow- 
ed it, for notwithstanding very few of these trees now appear, the 
farmers here gather their knots plentifully, as a substitute for can- 
dles, and also for making tar, where no other traces of the fallen 
timber appear. These knots seem to be nearly indestructible, for 
they are often ploughed out of the ground, without the least appear- 
ance of decay upon them. 

It is a notorious fact that forest trees different from any that have 
been remembered to grow in the neighbourhood, have taken pes- 



73 

session of old fields ; the cultivation of which, appears to have for- 
warded the process : first, by promoting the gradual decomposition 
of the vegetable substances, of which a soil, when recently cleared 
from its wood, is principally composed : for although this covering 
is thick, if the soil be deep, it becomes very thin, after the vegeta- 
ble matter is reduced to apparent earth. Secondly, the regular 
cultivation destroys the seed above those that lay deeply buried. 
Thirdly, the furrows made by the plough in the last cultivation, un- 
covered and brought up the seeds that had lain buried beyond the 
power of vegetation for ages unhurt. It is, therefore, by no means 
wonderful, that the plants grown from these seeds should be very 
different from the prevailing timber in the neighbourhood. 

In the cases mentioned above, it clearly appears that provision 
has been made to enable nature to resume her violated domain, long 
after art had apparently destroyed every vestige of the forest glade, 
or prairy, which had been for ages left to be managed by her, and 
that this is effected by seed. 

When the timber in our forests is destroyed by age, tornadoes, or 
in any other way that has claimed my attention, except those which 
have been mentioned above, a growth of plants different from the 
prevailing timber commonly takes place. As in this case, the co- 
vering over the seeds, which had been long buried beyond the power 
of vegetation, can be but little reduced by the decomposition of 
it, before a new growth of plants takes place, from a stratum of seeds 
lying nearer to the surface, the young plants and trees are gene 
rally composed of such kind of timber, as was at the time the de- 
struction took place, thinly scattered in greater or smaller num« 
bers, among the timber that generally prevailed. 

This determines that nature sets the example of change. But 
mark : as she is principally indebted for the means by which it is 
effected to the seeds grown on the soil where the change is pro- 
duced, the changes made by her are immediately opposed to the 
very injurious change in the "locality" of seeds, which Mr. Peters 
endeavours to establish by that which takes place in our forests, &c. 

The changing of animals that has been advocated by him, is 
equally as erroneous as are the arguments employed to substan^ 
tiate his system. He says, that "Nature, the creature of the divine 
Author and Director of all things, without intermission, where spe- 
cial interferences do not occur, progresses in a system prescribed to 
her; and employs the \\\o?,i flagitious of the human race to destroy, 
and finally produce a change, renovation, or substitution in nations 
or races of men,"* And soon after this, speaking of timber and 
plants, he observes, " these flourish on the destruction of others, as 
do men and animals, whose number and vigour increase by changes 
of race and locality."! To convince us of this supposed fact, he 
says, " how many of the aborigines of South America have been ex- 

* * See Mem. of the Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. i. pages 33 and 34, 
^ Idem, pare 36. 

K 



74 

tirpated ? Nearer home, in our part of the country, whole tribes and 
nations have been exterminated : their places are now tenanted by 
those destined to extinguish and succeed them."* 

Are we to infer from this, that a strong and successful combina- 
tion of" the most flagitious of the human race" acts under the broad 
seal of heaven ; and that weaker and less successful villains of the 
same description of men, are instigated by Satan, and being caught, 
are justly sentenced by the Judge to be hanged up by the neck, that 
the world may be rid of such inefficient instruments in the neces- 
sary changes of men and other animals, " whose numbers and vigour 
increase by changes of race and locality ?" " Whether the purpose 
be achieved peacefully or violently, by those encircled with diadems, 
or hordes of savages, not less destructive or fierce, tiie ends are ac- 
compli shed. "t 

The President remarks, "that this picture may not be valuable 
for its colouring, but the likeness is drawn by the pencil of truth." 

History has drawn a shocking picture of the miseries inflicted by 
wicked men. I do not, however, recollect, that it says " The divine 
Author and Director of all things employs the most flagitious of the 
human race" to eff'ect this evil ; and however different the opinions 
of Christians may be on other subjects, they all agree in the moral 
obligation of man. Also, that offensive and unprovoked war is im- 
mediately opposed to the doctrines contained in the New Testa- 
ment. If it were just to employ the " most flagitious of the human 
race, to destroy and produce a change, renovation, or substitution of 
nations and races of men," for the express purpose of increasing the 
numbers and vigour of them, it would not be wise, unless men had 
been constructed like certain worms, which are multiplied by being 
cut into pieces. 

Although man, and most other animals, are endowed with the 
power of removing from one place to another, and many of them to 
ramble wide, and some far distant from their native soil, vastly 
more live and die on it without the aid of the sword or tomahawk; 
and numerous animals are as incapable of removing from the spot 
where they were first propagated, as plants, and the circle in which 
many others move is very circumscribed, yet this does not seem to 
hasten their destruction. 

The immense heaps of oyster shells which cover the grounds, 
near to the rivers and creelis in our older settlements, where this 
shellfish is found, seem to determine that notwithstanding they 
are as located as plants, they have existed there at least ever since 
the aborigines inhabited this country. As they still exist in the 
same places, (except when a very increased population has destroy- 
ed them,) while the Indians, whose \\~dndering habits, seem much 
less likely to render their very partial locality burthensome to 
nature, are destroyed, it clearly appears that the evils arising from 
the locality of them, did not render it necessary to extirpate them 

• See Mem. of the Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. i. pag'e 34. f Idem, page 36. 



75 

and introduce Europeans : consequently that heaven had no more 
to do with the destruction of the savages "nearer home" than it had 
with the inspiring that thirst for gold which induced the Spaniards 
not only to butcher, but also to inflict the most cruel tortures that 
monsters in human shape could devise, on the unoffending inhabi- 
tants of South America. If supernatural agency were employed in 
this horrid massacre, Satan must have been the promoter of it, if 
Milton has drawn his picture with the pencil of truth. 

The knowledge we have of that very ancient and numerous na- 
tion the Chinese, as well as the very located habits and customs of 
this very singular people, is in itself sufficient to teach us that the 
same race of men may long occupy the same soil, before infinite wis- 
dom and benevolence will find it necessary to relieve nature of the 
oppressive burthen occasioned by their locality, by commissioning 
"the most flagitious of the human race to destroy them;" for the 
express purpose of "renovating" the soil by the introduction of the 
most profligate of men. 

It was once a generally received opinion that, unless merino sheep 
were kept rambling from one place to another, they degenerated. 
It has, however, since been clearly proved, that this rambling sa- 
vage like practice was actually injurious to them ; as a fixed resi- 
dence has greatly improved that very valuable animal. 

As it clearly appears that no proof can be brought either form 
the habits of men or inferior animals, or from the revolution in na- 
tions, or in the different classes of animals, that the changes of the 
latter from one neighbourhood or country to another, are produc- 
tive of any good, when change is the only object, reason dictates 
that the farmer should improve his present live stock by every ra- 
tional means, until an opportunity otfers to change for such stock as 
are evidently superior, or may better suit the soil, climate, or pur- 
poses. ' 

Although it has been proved that nature sets the example of 
change in vegetation, and extensive means have been provided to 
effect this purpose, as this is not done by the introduction of distant 
seeds, or the creation of new plants, but by a succession of different 
plants grown from seeds propagated on the same ground, there is 
nothing in the economy of nature that ought to induce the cultivator 
to change his seed, unless it be for better varieties, or for such as 
may suit his soil, climate, or purposes, better than those he may 
happen to have. 

The change for change sake, naturally places him much in the 
same situation as is the wandering Arab, who never continues long 
enough in one place, to admit the practice of valuable improvement 
to any considerable extent. 

In fact, the practice must have originated among barbarians, whose 
wandering, idle habits, and circumscribed ideas, naturally led them 
to seek it in change; than which there can be scarcely any thing 
introduced, that is more extensively injurious to agriculture. It 
strikes immediately at the root of all rational improvement. No 



76 

man who believes in this doctrine can, without acting inconsistently 
with his opinion, attempt to improve the properties of either his seed 
or animals, as he believes that notwithstanding all his eflforts, " lo- 
cality" must and will degenerate them. 

The farmer, however, should never forget, that a judicious change 
or rotation of plants on the same soil, is not only sanctioned by na- 
ture, (which we should always consult,) but also by reason and 
practice. 

I would have transgressed too much on the room in Mr. Poulson's 
paper, if I had explained fully how nature manages the forests com- 
mitted to her care. The following remarks, together with what has 
been advanced on this subject in the foregoing cnapters, will, 1 trust, 
explain the phenomenon. 

It will be seen, in the white pines selected for my experiment, 
that the diameter of the middle sized tree had greatly exceeded that 
of the smaller one in proportion to age. Also, that the largest sized 
tree had, in proportion to the age of it, still much more exceeded 
the growth of that of the second size ; and that which is called the 
annual growths increased in width in the heart-wood, in direct pro- 
portion to the growth of the trees. 

I have before observed, that after the trees in our forests have been 
destroyed, the succeeding young plants come up extremely thick; 
and that in the struggle for life, the weaker ones are destroyed. 
Also, that during the process the supernumerary branches are trim- 
med by shade. 

This causes the growth, even of the surviving plants, to be 
extremely slow, for a great many years; and although they are 
annually making more room for the growth of their tops and roots, 
by destroying their underlings, and of consequence gradually in- 
crease faster in size; they do not grow with much rapidity, until 
all. the plants have been destroyed, which nature had observed 
would be injurious to the number which the soil is capable of per- 
fecting. 

After this has been done, the close shade of the surviving plants 
keeps under any young tree that may happen to spring up among 
them : even if, from its nature, it would have been able to contend 
with those, now to much above it, if it had sprung up with them. 

Hence it is, that we often see tall but surprisingly slim trees, 
which, no longer capable of supporting their own weight, had bent 
down until their tops rested on the ground. To obtain sufficient 
air to keep them alive, they had been compelled to spindle upward, 
in place of maintaining the usual thickness of trees of the same 
description. 

While I lived in the vicinity of Philadelphia, I heard there were 
white pines growing at the distance of about ten or twelve miles. 
My gardener was sent to examine whether they might be replanted. 
On his return, he told me he was informed by the woman who 
owned the land where the trees grew, (but whose name I have 



77 

forgotten,) that the whole of them had sprung up in the same year 
in an old field, although it was not remembered, that any white 
pine had ever grown in that neighbourhood. He also said, that a 
number of them had been trimmed, and the supernumerary plants 
removed, that these had grown to four or five inches in diameter 
across the but, and were handsome ; but that the trees which had 
not been trimmed although much smaller, and fitter to remove, had 
ugly ,little, ragged looking heads. This induced me to send for 
most of the smallest size that could be got among the trees which 
had been trimmed, &c. and but a very few of those growing in the 
thicket. 

I found the trimmed trees were at least double the height of 
those got from the thicket. In the diameter there was still much 
more diiFerence. I believe one of those which had been trimmed 
would have weighed five or six times as much as one of the others. 

When I removed to the back woods, neither these circumstances 
nor what had been written in the memoirs on the changes in timber 
&c. were forgotten by me. What I have advanced in this work, 
on this very interesting subject, is the result of much attention, 
observation, and minute inquiry, and I trust in all material points 
will stand the test of ages yet to come. However, we have yet 
very much to learn respecting the economy of plants, which, if it 
be ever correctly understood, must be taught by science judiciously 
directed, as common science and observation can do but little more 
than detect obvious errors, and point out facts that are equally as 
readily seen. But as common sense and observation, in plain prac- 
tical cases, are capable of determining between science, and what 
pride and folly have attached to it, the practical farmer who can 
write so as to be understood, should not be silent when the interests 
of agriculture are involved. 



CHAPTER Vll. 

It is shown that any one of the earths when enriched with animal and vege- 
table matter, will produce luxuriant vegetation, but that no mixture of them 
will produce the same effect without the aid of these substances The prac- 
tice of paring and burning the soil is considered. How substances origina- 
ting in animal and vegetable matter may recede or depart so far h-om their 
original form, as to retain but little if any nu'riment for plants. The theory 
of the usefulness of carbonaceous matter as manure, has been carried quite 
too far. 

A FAVOURABLE mixtute of the different earths in soils, is well 
known to be highly interesting to the farmer. But no combination 
of those substances can be useful to agriculture without the aid of 
animal or vegetable matter. This is seen in old worn out soils, be 
their earthy texture what it may. Nature, always intent in propa- 
gating animal and vegetable life to the utmost extent wherever it 
can be done, never suffers such soils to be entirely stripped of ve- 
getable and animal matter ; still from the scanty produce obtained 
from them, it seems to be determined, that no valuable vegetation 
is to be expected from the earths alone. 

Seeds contain in themselves enough of rich nutritive matter to 
support the infant plant,* still the vegetation of them is slow and 
precarious in a poor soil, and much more so in earth alone. Unless 
a soil calculated for the growth of plants lie under the inert earth, 
and the roots of the infant plants are sufficiently vigorous to find 
their way into it, (as may happen in soils that have been trench 
ploughed,) the plants will either die or be of little worth. The en- 
riching volatile matters arising from the living as well as from the 
fermentation and decomposition of dead animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, is continually floating in the atmosphere. These have been 
found sufficient to keep some plants alive, when seemingly separated 
from every other source of nourishment: still this supply alone can- 
not afford a sufficiency of nutriment for plants in general. Even 
the wonder working powers of gypsum have been found insufficient 
to operate on the inert substratum of a thin soil; that has been turned 
uppermost by trench ploughing, unless animal and vegetable mat- 
ter be applied.! 

In some of our forests calcareous matter prevails. In others no 
limestone is seen. In some of those extensive wilds, the different 
earths seem to be very advantageously blended. In other parts clay 
abounds ; and then again we find that sand greatly prevails : still, na- 

• It cannot, however, in the earliest stages of its growth be luxuriant, unless 
the additional nutriment required by it is supplied by the soil. 
I See Mem. of the Philad. Agi-. Soc. vol. i. page 24-3. 



79 

ture grows luxuriant, crops on all those soils, merely bj keeping 
them well stored with animal and vegetable matters. This seems 
to supersede the necessity of a more intimate combination of the 
different earths. 

When the farmer clears on any of these soils, he obtains luxuriant 
crops, until his folly has destroyed the greater part of the animal and 
vegetable matter wiiich nature had been accumulating for ati-es : 
therefore, we hear but little, if any complaint of the earthy ingredi- 
ents in his soil, until he has exhausted it by perpetual plouo-hing 
and severe cropping. When this evil has been effected, we hear 
loud complaints of a superabundance of clay or sand. It is then 
said the cold stiff retentive clay is commonly too wet, or else too dry 
to be advantageously cultivated. The plants are either injured by 
an excess of moisture, or the hard baking of the earth. The incle- 
ment weather in the winter or early in the spring, heaves them up, 
and they are destroyed by frost. 

Also, that the open texture of the sandy soil, greatly promotes 
evaporation. Unless the seasons happen to be dripping, the earth 
is blown from the roots of the plants, and they are killed or o-reatly 
injured by drought or frost. 

If the farmer had been as careful as nature was, to keep the 
grounds well stored with animal and vegetable matter, little or no 
complaint against the earthy texture of his soil would have been 
heard. The partly decaying vegetable substances would have di- 
vided the adhesive soil. The fermentation and decomposition of 
them would have expanded, and still more tninutely divided it, for 
the ready admission of the roots of the plants. Likewise furnished 
sufficient nutriment to invigorate and enable them to withstand the 
inclemency of the seasons : even under the present general system 
of cultivation, which is by no means calculated to produce an ex- 
tensive operation of these invaluable effects. 

A sufficiency of vegetable" and animal substances incorporated 
with a sandy soil, very much retards evaporation. They also in- 
vigorate the plants. This enables the roots to penetrate deeper and 
extend wider. Luxuriant foliage is likewise promoted, and this de- 
fends the soil by its shade; and where a proper system of culti- 
vation is practised, a much better texture of sandy as well as of 
clayey soils is also obtained, through the medium of the grasses. 

I have been the more particular to show that any one of the earths, 
when enriched with animal and vegetable matters, will produce luxu- 
riant vegetation, and that no mixture of them will produce the same 
valuable effects without the aid of these substances. Also, that the 
application of none of the manures generally termed stimulatino-, 
or any combination of them, is capable of preserving the fertility of 
any soil subjected to cultivation, as all the books which I have seen 
on agriculture, (however correct they may hsye been in some other 
respects,) recommend an immense and useless waste of animal and 
vegetable matters, by improper management, either before or after 
the manures have been applied. But mostgenerallv both before and 



80 

after the application of them, and this very generally through the 
medium of much useless as well as very injurious labour. 

Sir Humphrey Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, have 
guarded against the waste of animal and vegetable matters, more 
than any other publication that I have seen : still it may be proper 
before I proceed further, to point out where he exposes these sub- 
stances to useless, injurious and expensive waste. 

He says, '• the great objection made by speculating chemists, to 
paring and burning is, that it destroys vegetable and animal matter, 
or the manure in the soil ; but in cases in which the texture of its 
earthy ingredients is permanently improved, there is more than a 
compensation for any temporary disadvantage; and the carbona- 
ceous matter remaining in the ashes, may be more useful to the crop 
than the vegetable fibre from which it was produced."* 

However " speculating" these chemists may have been, in this in- 
stance they are supported by facts so obvious, that it seems won- 
derful how any chemist or farmer who employs observation, could 
believe otherwise. However, as the value of animal and vegetable 
matter has never been properly appreciated or explained. Sir Hum- 
phrey is by no means singular in his opinion of paring and burning. 
To prove the utility of this practice, he observes, " I have examined 
by a chemical analysis, three specimens of the ashes from different 
lands. The first was sent to the board by Mr. Boys, they were 
from a chalk soil, and 200 grains contained. 

Carbonate of lime, 80 

Gypsum, 11 

Charcoal, 9 

Oxide of iron, 15 

Saline matters, 3 

Sulphate of potash, 

Muriate of magnesia, with a minute quantity of 

vegetable alkali. 
The remainder alumina and silica. 

" Mr. Boys estimates that 2,660 bushels are the common product of 
an acre of ground, which gives 172,9001b. containing, 

Carbonate of lime, 69,160 

Gypsum, 9,509.5 

Oxide of iron, 12,967.5 

Saline matter, 2,593.5 

Charcoal, 7,780.5" f 

" The second specimen, a soil containing four per cent, carbonate 
of lime, and consieting of three-fourths light silicioussand, and about 
one-fourth clay. This had been a turf before burning, and 100 parts 
of the ashes gave, 

* See his Lee on Agr. Chem. page 340. 
t Idem, page 340. 



81 

6 parts charcoal, 

3 do. muriate of soda and sulphate of potash, with a 
tj-ace of vegetable alkali. 
9 do. oxide of iron. 
The remainder earths."* 

" The third instance was a stiff clay. 100 parts of the ashes con- 
tained, 

8 parts charcoal, 

2 do. saline matter, principally common salt, with a lit- 
tle vegetable alkali. 
7 do. oxide of iron, 
2 do. carbonate of lime. 
The remainder alumina and silica."t 

Sir Humphrey remarks on the first specimen, "In this instance 
there was undoubtedly a very considerable body of matter capable 
of being active as manure produced in the operation of burning. The 
charcoal was finely divided, and exposed to a large surface of the 
field, must have been gradually converted into carbonic acid, and 
the gypsum and oxide of iron, as I mentioned in the last lecture, 
seem to produce the very best effects when applied to lands con- 
taining an excess of carbonate of Ume."t 

This gentleman speaks as if the carbonate of lime, gypsum, and 
oxide of iron had been introduced by the burning. He must have 
known better. This process neither increased the quantity nor 
altered the properties of either of them, as may be readily proved 
from his own testimony. Chalk is a carbonate of lime, consequently 
the chalk soil furnishes an abundance of this article. The proper- 
ties of it were not altered by the burning is evident, as after this, he 
calls it carbonate of Itme. Now Sir H. tells us that a soil should be 
heated red hot for half an hour, to discover whether gypsum existed 
in it.^ Therefore, we must conclude, that he does not believe that 
paring and burning of the soil, will produce it where it did not exist 
before. 

Of the oxide of iron he elsewhere observes, " Dr. Darwin, in his 
Phytologia, has supposed that clay, during torrefaction, may absorb 
some nutritive principles from the atmosphere that afterwards may 
be supplied to plants; but the earths are pure metallic oxides, sa- 
turated with oxygen; and the tendency of burning is to expel any 
other volatile principle that they may contain in combination. If 
the oxide of iron in soils is not saturated with oxygen, torrefaction 
tends to produce its further union with this principle, and hence in 
burning, the colour of clays changes red. The oxide of iron con- 
taining its full portion of oxygen has a less attraction for acids than 
the other oxide, and is consequently less likely to be dissolved by 



See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 348. 
Idem , page 348, \ Idem, page 17i. 



82 

any fluid in the soil ; and it appears in this state to act in the same 
manner as the earths. A very ingenious author, whom I (juotedat 
the end of my last lecture, supposes that the oxide of iron, when 
combined with carbonic acid, is poisonous to plants; and that one 
use of torrefaction is to expel the carbonic acid from it; but the car- 
bonate of iron is not soluble in water, and is a very inert substance, 
and I have raised a luxuriant crop of cresses in a soil composed of 
one-fifth carbonate of iron, and four-fifths carbonate of lime.* Thus 
■we see this "active manure" is reduced by the gentleman himself 
to the level of common "inert earth." 

Much stress is laiil by Sir H. on the advantages to be derived 
from the finely divided charcoal, which appeared so plentifully in 
this experiment. It could not have been any thing like so finely di- 
vided as was that which he reduced to impalpable powder previously 
to putting it into the phial of water, in which his experiment plant of 
peppermint was growing. Certainly the result of that experiment 
was not such as to induce him to say any thing in favour of this al- 
most indestructible substance, which in the case of paring and burn- 
ing, seems to be his favourite manure. 

Here I would, however, ask how it happens that Sir H. does not 
enumerate the salts contained in the ashes, as a part of the active 
manure obtained by the burning, especially as they were considera- 
able in this, as well as in the other two samples of soil analysed by 
him } It also clearly appears that they were the only manure which 
was introduced by the burning, except the gaseous effluvia which 
may have lodged in thf earth as the smoke, &c. passed through it, 
during the slow smothered heat which very gradually consumed 
or charred the animal and vegetable matter contained in and upon 
the soil, previously to the paring and burning of it. Had he for- 
gotten that he previously told us these salts were " a part ot the true 
food of plants ?" Or was he apprehensive that the plain practical 
farmer would dispute the merit of the charcoal, if the powerful 
agency of the alkaline and saline salts was acknowledged ; as it had 
been generally believed by this class of cultivators, before the ab- 
surd theories founded on charcoal were started, that the salts con- 
tained in the ashes produced the fertility which followed paring and 
burning? Although the salts existing in the ashes afford no nutri 
meut for plants, lon^ and extensive practice has clearly determined 
them to be powerfully stimulating manures. 

As, agreeably to Sir H.'s own theory, it does not appear, that the 
sandy soil could be benefited by opening the texture of it, I shall 
pass on to the third specimen, particularly as this gentleman says, 
" Many obscure causes have been referred to, for the purpose of 
explaining the effects of paring and burning ; but I believe they may 
be referred entireJy to the diminution of the coherence and tenacity 
of clays, and to the destruction of inert and useless vegetable mat- 
ter, and its conversion into a manure."! " And in all cases in which - 

• See his Lee. on Agi". Chem. page 350. f Idem, page 349. 



83 

the texture is already loose, or the organizable matter sufficiently 
soluble, the process of torrefaction cannot be useful."* 

In his remarks on the third specimen, he observes, " This land 
had been brought into cultivation from a heath, by burning, about 
ten years before ; but having been neglected, furze was springing 
up in different parts of it, which gave rise to a second paring and 
burning." Likewise, that " here the quantity of charcoal was greater 
than in the other instances;" and that he suspected, "the salt was 
owing to the vicinity of the sea, it being only two miles off."t 

As a productive soil is seldom neglected, may we not infer that 
this neglect originated in the impoverishing effects produced by the 
first paring and burning ? Especially as it is very observable that 
when the management of the soil after paring and burning has been 
detailed, the success depended on the use of much enriching ma- 
nure, unless where the grounds were very quickly returned to grass. 

In the former case cropping may be perpetual on any soil capable 
of cultivation. In the latter, the animal and vegetable matter which 
remains after the burning is not entirely exhausted by cultivation, 
before grass seeds are sown. The powerful action of the salts de- 
composes the vegetable matter, and the grasses being thus invigo- 
rated, furnish abundant food for cattle andanimalcula, which natu- 
rally introduce animal matter also. 

It should be, however, well remembered, that it is to the grasses, 
and not the burning, that the agriculturist is indebted It is the 
vegetation introduced by them that makes the improvement, if any 
there should be, and that prevents the ruin of the soil. However, 
as this vegetation, and the animal and vegetable matter obtained by 
it, might have existed to as great or greater extent without the 
burning, the animal and vegetable substances destroyed by this in- 
considerate practice, are for ever lost to the cultivator; although it 
might have been saved, and valuable crops obtained, if a proper 
system of management had been pursued. 

But as the usual practice of husbandry is better calculated to de- 
stroy much of the animal and vegetable matter, than to bring the 
whole of it into the most active and lasting use, the difference be- 
tween burning these invaluable substances, and that of exposing 
them, by an injudicious cultivation, to the destructive effects of the 
sun, air, &c. though very considerable, has not been sufficiently ap- 
preciated by many cultivators : therefore the barbarous practice of 
burning the soil has been perpetuated, and is now advocated by 
some of the best farmers, and most enlightened chemists of the 
present age. The product obtained by this practice is tempting, 
while the salts contained in the ashes continue powerfully to ex- 
cite the animal and vegetable matter, which escapes the burning, to 
a hasty and unnatural fermentation and decomposition. This greatly 
facilitates the growth of the crops; but as speedily terminates in 
the destruction of the animal and vegetable matter, unless the soil 

♦ See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 350. f Idem, page 349. 



84 

was uncommonly deep and rich before the burnina; took place. This 
evil, however, appears not only to be overlooked by many, but the 
practice is also highly recommended by them ; in consetjuence of 
its having succeeded in the hands of Mr. Boys, and other wealthy 
and distinguished cultivators, who possess the means of making 
much manure, and know full well when and how to apply it, in suf- 
ficient quantities, to counteract the loss sustained by burning of the 
greater part of the animal and vegetable matter, and the hasty de- 
composition of the remainder. If, however, the extra labour, to- 
gether with the value of the manure necessary to keep up the fer- 
tility of the greatly injured soil, were fairly estimated, much loss, 
instead of profit, would appear, especially if the product, for a suc- 
cession of years, were contrasted with that obtained from grounds 
of equal quality, which had not been burned, but judiciously culti- 
vated. In the latter practice, the animal and vegetable matter con- 
tained in the land would be applied to the growth of the crops, and 
improvement of the soil, in place of being exposed to the useless 
waste, which naturally arises from the usual inconsiderate system 
of cultivation. 

To illustrate this, it becomes necessary to describe, very briefly, 
how the soil now under consideration, should have been cultivated. 
We are told, furze was springing up in the different parts of it. 
The manner, however, of telling this, seems to imply, that they 
were neither very numerous nor large. If any part of them were 
too large to be ploughed under the soil, those might have been cut 
oft' close to the ground; or if their roots were too stubborn to be 
turned under by the plough, grubbed up, and burned, and the 
ashes in either case profitably applied. It is not said whether the 
grounds had been artificially covered with grass, or left to be cov- 
ered by nature, with such plants as she could introduce. This, how- 
ever, is of little consequence, as in either case we observe the soil 
must have been covered with vegetation ; for the charcoal greatly 
exceeded that produced by the second specimen, which we are in- 
formed was a turf. This vegetation, except that part of it which 
was too stubborn, might have been ploughed under the soil. 

We may readily make a tolerably correct estimate of the amount 
of vegetation above the soil, for it is seen. If the earth be carefully 
removed from a soil of grass cut out sufficiently deep, the number, 
size, and texture of the roots seem to justify the opinion, that 
they will weigh as much as the full grown tops proceeding from 
them, and it would seem that the same may be expected from the 
roots of the plants generally called weeds. On a lay, well stored 
either with grass or weeds, any fallow crop that the soil is capable 
of producing, may be very advantageously grown, and followed by 
wheat or any other smalfgrain. After these crops have been re- 
moved, a considerable proportion of the animal and vegetable mat- 
ter that was at first contained in the lay, will remain for the use of 
the grasses ; which ought always to follow the second cultivated 
crop, when the soil is rather thin, and enriching manure cannot be 
applied for the first crop. 



85 

If a proper system of cultivation be pursued, all the animal and 
vegetable matter that it seems possible to reclaim from the multi- 
plied avenues of useless waste, will be saved ; and if, as in the case 
now under consideration, tlie soil happens to be a retentive clay, a 
much dryer, and vastly more open and freer soil is obtained for the 
roots of the plants, than can be furnished by paring and burning. 
When the grass or weed lay is turned, each furrow-slice forms an 
under drain ; especially when the crop of grass or weeds which has 
been ploughed under is luxuriant. 

The innumerable roots that fill the soil in every direction, mi- 
nutely divide it. The fermentation and decomposition of them and 
of their tops expand and open it. This with the cavities or holes 
formed by the gradual decay of the roots, prepare an open, free, ar- 
tificial bed, well stored with nutriment, and properly calculated to 
admit the roots of the plants readily to pass through it, in every di- 
rection, in search of the food provided for them. 

The fermentation that takes place in the soil is never interrupt- 
ed, or the nutritious matter arising from it exposed to useless waste, 
as is done by the usual, but very erroneus practice of turning up the 
sods when the crop is cultivated. Of consequence nothing is lost 
that could be saved. It is also certain that there is nothing but fire, 
or some cause which acts with equal effect, that can destroy weeds 
or any other vegetation injurious to crops, more eftectually than 
fermentation when it is properly directed. 

If the lay be well turned and the crop cultivated by the hoe har- 
row, (called by some a scuffler,) with the tined harrow following it, 
the weeds and grasses are cut oft' by the first implement a little 
within the surface of the soil. The vegetation separated by it from 
that lying still lower within the ground, is overturned and effec- 
lually mangled by the tined harrow. The weeds and grasses within 
the soil being severely wounded by the hoe harrow, and closely co- 
vered by the eart'h above, the fermentation of them is powerfully 
promoted every time the fallow crop is cultivated. 

Still some hardy plants, and also others which are less hardy, 
but more favourably situated, will escape. It should, however, 
be recollected, that even the savage and destructive practice of 
paring and burning does not entirely extirpate either: also, that 
fermentation keeps the soil open and mellow, so long as a sufficiency 
of animal and vegetable matter remains in it. As the small grain 
is put in by the hoe harrow with the tined harrow following it, the 
sod is not disturbed either before or after the seed for this is sown. 
Consequently, the seed of weeds, which lay buried beyond the power 
of vegetation is not turned up, to poison the crop or the grasses fol- 
lowing it. 

Neither are the rich matters within the soil exposed to useless 
waste. I have been compelled prematurely to introduce this very 
concise description of some of the substantial advantages obtained 
by a proper cultivation, that the reader may contrast them with the 
fleeting resources, and ruinous consequences, arising from burning 
the soil. 



86 

To show that burning a clay soil ameliorates the texture of it, 
"if a piece of brick earth be applied to the tongue, it will adhere 
to it very strongly, in consequence of its power to absorb water; 
but after it is burnt there will be scarcely any sensible adhesion."* 

There is no brick made here ; therefore, I cannot try this experi- 
ment. But as I have always understood thatapure clay will not make 
good brick, unless a considerable quantity of sand be mixed with it, 
and find that a new pipe stem (which seems to be formed, of pure 
clay) adheres very powerfully to the lip, it would seem that the gentle- 
man may have been greatly mistaken in this experiment. Be this, 
however, as it may, he should have recollected that it requires a 
very intense heat to form a brick. 

The inflammable matter contained in a soil which is pared and 
burned, is too inconsiderable to act powerfully on the great body of 
earth with which it is mixed. Especially as the combustion pro- 
ceeds so slowly that a great deal of the vegetable matter is only 
charred ; and a part of it remains unburned ; therefore, when clay 
or tenacious soils are pared and burned, they cannot be brought 
" much nearer to a state analogous to that of sands."t Yet as the 
heat is sufficient to expel the greater part of the moisture, provi- 
ded the weather happen to favour the process, the "burning may 
convert a matter that was stiff, damp, and consequently cold, into 
one powdery, dry and warm; and much more proper as a bed for 
vegetable life.":^ But this improvement extends no further than 
this earthy texture of the soil, and except from the moisture intro- 
duced by the salts in the ashes, can be but little, if at all, more per- 
manent, than that obtained by a well directed naked fallow, execu- 
ted in the usual way, when the weather proves favourable for per- 
forming the work. 

Although the latter practice uselessly destroys much of the ani- 
mal and vegetable matter, it is a very saving one Avhen compared 
with paring and burning, or that truly ingenious agriculturist, J. 
TuU, could not have continued so long to grow a regular succession 
of exhausting crops, on the same ground, without the application 
of manure of any kind ; especially as the lands cultivated by him 
were naturally thin. 

We do not pare and burn soils in the back-woods ; but we see 
the effects of fire on them, both on a very extensive, and also on a 
very limited scale, not only on fresh soils, but also on older ones, 
as long as any of the girdled timber remains on them. I shall, 
therefore, describe our practice, and the effects produced by it on 
an old field that has been neglected, as this suits my present pur- 
pose best. 

Previously to the cultivation of it, it is absolutely necessary that 
the obstacles should be removed. In fact, the practice of burning 
is so very prevalent that it seldom happens that we can cultivate a 
field where the timber has been girdled, until considerable labour 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 346. f Ibid. + Ibid. 



87 

has been first employed in removing the fallen trees, limbs, bark, 
&c Therefore, we are compelled to become well acquainted with 
the effects of fire on our grounds. But to return to the old fields 
now under consideration : the fallen timber is cut up iato proper 
lengths, hauled or rolled together, heaped up, and burned. The 
brambles and sprouts cut off close to the ground, and the grubs 
rooted out. These, with the bark, brush, chips, &c. are gathered 
by the hand, and raked into small heaps, and also burned. It, how- 
ever, often happens that the ashes arising from burning the heaps 
are not spread, except the little that is done towards spreading 
them by the plough and the harrow in the cultivation of the soil.* 
Therefore, if the crop happens to be wheat, or other small grain, 
it often falls or lodges where the heaps were burned, but is less likely 
to be injured by superabundant luxuriance where the grubs, brush, 
brambles, &c. were consumed. 

Thus accident furnishes the means of much more correct infor- 
mation of the effects of fire on soils, than any chemical experiments 
that have been, or, perhaps, ever will be made; or than is likely to 
be gathered from the practice of paring and burning. 

This being the case, the back-woods' farmer, at one comprehen- 
sive view, may readily see the effects produced by every different 
grade of burning, and on every different kind of soil : also, on new 
as well as on older grounds. He may likewise readily discover the 
effects produced by the different grades of burning, by comparing 
what takes place where the log, brush heaps, &c. were burned, with 
what happens in the grounds around them which have not been sub- 
jected to the burning. 

The salts contained in the ashes where the heaps were burned, es- 
pecially where the log heaps were consumed, keep the soil so moist 
for some time after the grounds have been cultivated, that until I 
have got near enough to investigate the cause of this moisture, I 
have sometimes thought that it proceeded from spouts or feeble 
springs This moisture causes the crops to be as luxuriant on sandy 
soils as on clay. It counteracts the injurious effects produced by 
too great evaporation, which generally takes place in sandy grounds 
after they have been robbed by burning, or an injudicious cultiva- 
tion of the greater part of the animal and vegetable matter that 
had previously existed in them. It also prevents the clay soil from 
baking, and becoming impervious to the roots of the plants, which, 
in general, does much more injury to the crops than the excess of 
moisture which prevails in any soil that is not too wet for the growth 
of cultivated crops. 

But, it should be remembered, that as soon as the salts contained 
111 the ashes have exhausted the animal and vegetable matter, which 

* I was not a little surprized, when I first removed to the back-woods, to find 
that veg^etation, in place of being destroyed by the very large quantity of 
ashes lying within the compass of the spot where a log heap had been burned, 
was commonly much more luxuriant than on any other part of the gi'oand, un- 
less the soil was in general rich enough to produce luxuriantl}'. 



88 

had escaped the burning, and on which they so very powerfully act, 
the places where the heaps were burned are clearly seen to be thes 
poorest parts of the field, unless enriching manure has been ap- 
plied, or the grounds have been laid down in grass, in time to pre- 
vent the full extent of the injury done by the burning, from being 
so readily seen. As the grasses, however, are but too seldom sown, 
and but little, if any, manure used by too many of the farmers in 
the back-woods, the facts which I now relate, are not only clearly 
seen, but acknowledged by the most of them. When a soil is pared 
and burned, a part of the nriching and estimulating volatile matters 
arising from the burning, lodges in the heaps of earth, and furnishes 
some manure for plants. As a red and intense heat is not produced, 
the matter deposited by the smoke proceeding from the slow and 
smothered combustion, is not consumed. Now, as this matter, and 
the salts contained in the ashes, are the only active manures ob- 
tained by the burning, is it not strange that Sir H. (who is, no 
question, a very excellent chemist,) should overlook those active 
manures, and lay so great a stress on charcoal, and also on sub- 
stances which are neither altered nor created by the burning ? But 
it would appear that too many farmers, chemists and philosophers, 
have yet much to learn respecting the nature and properties of ma- 
nures ; for nearly the same takes place when clay is burned for ma- 
nure, as when the soil is pared and burned. Still this very incon- 
siderate and equally expensive practise, has been, (more especially 
of late,) highly recommended by farmers and philosophers. Al- 
though nothing is found in the united mass after it has been burned, 
to remunerate the credulous practitioner, but the salts contained in 
the ashes arising from the fuel employed in the burning, and the 
volatile matter lodged in the clay, as is the soot and rich matters 
lodged with it at the sides of our chimneys, but in greater quanti- 
ties to the proportion of fuel expended, as the clay opposes the 
rapid progress of those matters through it.* But even this is a ra- 
tional practice, when compared with paring and burning. For al- 
though it produces little, when compared with the labour or money 
this little costs, it does not destroy an immense quantity of in- 
valuable enriching manure. 

Sir Humphrey certainly seems to expect vastly too much from 
charcoal. We may all see that it is slowly wasted by the destroying 
hand of time, and agree with him that it produces nutriment for 
plants : still it is difficult to believe that this nutriment is supplied 
with sufficient despatch to make it an object of any considerable 
moment to the farmer, except in those few cases where the fire has 
acted so weakly as only very partially or imperfectly to char the 
substances which may happen to have been exposed to a degree of 
heat, not so far exceeding that produced by a natural fermentation, as 
to render the vegetable matters any thing like as inert as charcoal. 

• When charcoal is burned, the wood is covered witli the ground nearest to 
it. This gi'ound becomes highly saturated wnth vegetable matters, and is a 
valuable manure, be the texture of the eartli what it may. 



89 

This gentleman observes, that "in April, 1803, 1 enclosed some 
well burned charcoal in a tube half filled with pure water ; I opened 
the tube in the spring of 1804 : the water in the tube, when mixed 
with lime water, produced a copious precipitate ; so that carbonate 
acid had evidently been formed and dissolved by the water."* 

This seems to determine, that, if charcoal be favourably situated, 
some enriching matter is formed. It, however, also determines that 
the experiment was twelve months in operation, and that, at the 
expiration of this time. Sir H. does not say how much of the char- 
coal had been wasted, or how many more years it would require to 
convertFthe whole of it into what is called carbonate acid by him, 
although this might, and ought to have been done, before he so highly 
recommended that substance for manure : more especially as he 
tells us "the carbonaceous matter remaining in the ashes, may be 
more useful to the crop than the vegetable fibre from which it was 

produced."! 

This is rating charcoal very highly, and greatly depreciating the 
value of the vegetable fibre. It requires many pounds weight of the 
lattef to make one pound of the former. After it has been purchased 
at this very extravagant rate, neither Sir II. 's experiments, nor any 
others known to us, determine whether the whole of it could be 
brought into active use for a century to come. 

Yet this gentleman, in his observations on the three specimens 
of soil, seems to overlook the great value of the salts contained in 
the ashes, while he powerfully impresses the value of the charcoal. 

On the first specimen he observes, " the charcoal was finely divi- 
ded ; and being exposed to a large surface of the field, must have 
been gradually converted into carbonic acid." And on the second, 
" in this instance, as in the other, finely divided charcoal is found ; 
the solubility of which would be increased by the presence of al- 
kali."! And on the third, '* liere the quantity of charcoal was greater 
than in the other instances." 

It is surprising that Sir H. who is so very careful to preserve 
even the dry vegetable fibre from waste, as to recommend in place 
of fermenting straw, to " have it chopped small, and kept dry, till 
it is ploughed in for the use of the crop,"§ should not only recom- 
mend burning of dry, but also living vegetation, which might, with 
much less labour, be ploughed under the soil, where no part of it 
that it is possible to save, is lost, and where it is brought into im- 
mediate action, as well as lasting use : especially as it does not ap- 
pear that an injurious excess of vegetation existed in either of the 
three soils now under consideration. 

But it would seem that the theory of the nutritious properties 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 287. f I'^^'"' V^S^ 346. 

+ Here alkali is noticed but merely to increase the solubility of the charcoal. 
The presence of alkali, however, would do but little good, if it found no- 
thing less inert than charcoal to act on. 

§ Sec his Lee, on Agi*. Chem. page 284. 



90 

contained in substances that originated from animal and vegetable 
matters, has been carried quite too far; and that in consequence of 
this inconsiderate error, philosophers, chemists, and farmers, have 
expected too much nutriment for plants, from substances that con- 
tained but little, or perhaps none at all. 

As the application of some of these substances, (in consequence 
of their stimulating properties,) has been found to promote vegeta- 
tion to a great extent, too many have been confirmed in the ruinous 
opinion, that they furnish the nutriment which produces this effect. 
They should, however, have recollected that the further any sub- 
stance recedes or departs from that from which it originated, the 
less of the properties of the original substance is retained. 

Thus, although it seems probable that the shells from which the 
carbonate of lime is formed, were, in their original state, quite as 
richly stored with decomposable animal matter, as the bones of 
animals, time has eradicated this matter. 

For " the most common form in which lime is found on the sur- 
face of the earth, is in a state of combination with carbonic acid, 
or fixed air ;"* " the true calcareous element, the carbonate of 
lime, is uniformly the same in nature, properties, and effect, and 
consists of one portion of carbonic acid, 41.4, and one of lime, 55."t 

It is therefore evident, that this combination has departed far 
from the substances from which it originated, and that but little, if 
any, enriching matter is to be expected from it. 

If wood be burned in our fire places, ashes, coal, and soot are ob- 
tained. The ashes depart farthest from the original vegetable sub- 
stances, and if they retain any enriching matter, it must be little. 

The coal, though severely scorched, has not receded or departed 
so far from the wood ; therefore, it still retains some considerable 
portion of the vegetable matter. 

As the soot arising from the smoke is condensed and deposited 
at the sides of the chimney, much enriching volatile matter, that 
has been but little, if any, scorched, is deposited with it. The rest 
escapes, and when the state of the atmosphere favours the descent 
of the smoke, we often see it hovering over our fields; also, smell 
it, and feel its effects even in the open air ; and no question but 
the enriching volatile matter conveyed in this way, produces very 
valuable effects on vegetation. 

When barley is malted, enriching volatile matter escapes, but 
much more of it from the brewer's vat. The beer affords conside- 
rable nutriment and stimulus. If the fermented liquor from the 
vat be distilled, spirit is formed. This has receded so far from the 
original vegetable matter, that although it is a powerful stimulus, 
and as useful as it is powerful, but little, if any, nutriment is deri- 
ved from it; and when too freely used, especially, (as too often 
happens,) without a regular and sufficient quantity of nutritive 
matter, its ruinous effects are too well known to require explanation. 

• See Sb- H. Davy's Lee. on Agv. Chem. page 315. f Wem, page 316. 



91 

This, by the by, is very analogous to the improper use of stimu- 
lating manures, which have originated in animal or vegetable organ- 
ized bodies, but have receded or departed so far from those sub- 
stances, that they retain but little, if any, nutritive matter for 
plants. 

Sir H. observes, "it is not uncommon to find a number of changes 
rung upon a string of technical terms, such as oxygen, hydrogen, 
carbon and azote, as if science depended on words rather than 
things."* And again, " no one principle affords the pabulum of 
vegetable life; it is neither charcoal, nor hydrogen, nor azote, nor 
oxygen alone; but all of them in their various states and combi- 

Hations."t 

This seems to refer the pabulum of vegetation to charcoal, hydro- 
gen, azote and oxygen, in their various states and combinations. I 
believe, however, it will be found, when the subject has been pro- 
perly investigated, that charcoal furnishes but little food for plants ; 
and however useful hydrogen, azote and oxygen may be to vegeta- 
tion in other respects, that they do not afford any nutriment for it, 
as will be presently explained. 

Modern philosophy seems to have made no distinction between 
the rich " gaseous effluvia, which the putrefying or decaying remains 
of animals and vegetables, are constantly emitting,"t or the rich 
gas arising from a brewer's vat, and that which constitutes a part 
of the atmosphere, or forms a part of the carbonate of lime. All 
these gases are now indiscriminately called carbonic acid gas. 

Now it is as evident as almost any other thing can be, that the car- 
bonic acid gas, which has been locked up for ages in limestone, does 
not possess the same rich nutritious matters as the gases which have 
recently escaped fn»m a brewer's vat, or from the putrefying remains 
of animals and vegetables. Consequently, the carbonic acid gas 
found in limestone, has receded or departed far from the rich ori- 
ginal state in which it may have first existed, and affords but little, 
if any, nutriment for plants. 

The properties of the carbonic acid gas, which is said to consti- 
tute a part of the atmosphere, are not so readily distinguished from 
the rich gaseous effluvia which are constantly emitting from a variety 
of processes, and intermixing with it. If the genuine properties 
of this gas be, (as there is every reason to believe they are,) the 
same as that which forms a part of the carbonate of lime, no ques- 
tion but it also has receded or departed far from the rich gaseous 
matters from which ii may have originated ; and that but little, if 
any, nutriment for plants is contained in it. 

Sir H. says, " it is shown, by various researches, that the consti- 
tution of the atmosphere has been always the same, since the time 
it was first accurately analyzed ; and this must, in a great measure, 
depend upon the powers of plants to absorb or decompose the pu- 
trefying or decaying remains of animals and vegetables, and the 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 26. f Idem, page 18. i Idem, page 16. 



92 

gaseous effluvia which they are constantly emitting." " Carbonic 
acid gas is formed in a variety of processes of fermentation and 
combustion, and in the respiration of animals, and as yet no pro- 
cess is known in nature by which it can be consumed, except vege- 
tation." 

" Animals produce a substance which appears a necessary food 
for vegetables ; vegetables evolve a principle necessary to the ex- 
istence of animals ; and these different classes of beings seem to 
be thus connected together in the exercise of their living func- 
tions, and to a certain extent made to depend on each other for 
their existence. Water is raised from the ocean, diffused through 
the air, and poured down on the soil, so as to be applied to the 
purposes of life. The different parts of the atmosphere are min- 
gled together by the winds, or changes in temperature, and succes- 
sively brought into contact with the surface of the earth, so as to 
exert their fertilizing influence."* 

These agents are heavily laden with rich fertilizing matters, 
and winged with despatch. Still, among this mighty mass of mat- 
ter, some substances will exist, that nature herself cannot bring 
into immediate active use : but as she has neither designed nor 
constructed them for that purpose, neither she nor the agricultu- 
rist, whom she means to serve, will be disappointed, if he be care- 
ful to harmonize nature and reason in the practice of husbandry. 

If nature and reason had not been made to bend to favourite 
theories, the advantage which plants derive from the enriching and 
fertilizing principles floating in the atmosphere might have been 
better understood : but as soon as any principle in nature is be- 
lieved to be more highly important than it was formerly thought to 
be, almost every beneficial virtue is attributed to it. 

The gases have been "rung,"t until nature has been silenced 
and reason deafened with the sound : especially the carbonic acid 
gas, formerly called serial acid;| also, fixed air;§ " as if science 
depended on words, rather than things ;||" or, indeed, on an alter- 
ation of words. 

It seems that, as all animal and vegetable matter may be re- 
duced to carbonaceous substances, it has been concluded, that they 
also must be the best preparation for the food of plants; although 
a little more heat would convert the charcoal into ashes, which 
would still be the remains of the animal and vegetable matter j 
and, being a very powerful manure, may, at some future day, as 
systems are continually changing, be considered still more effica- 
cious : especially after the parers and burners of the soil, who of 
late have placed great confidence in charcoal, find it infinitely in- 
ferior to ashes for manure. 

All nature has been ransacked for carbonaceous substances : the 
diamond has not escaped. Sir H. tells us, it " cannot chemically 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 16 and 17. f Idem, pag'e 26. 

4; Idem, page 21. § Ibid. !l Idem, page 26. 



93 

: be distinguished from pure carbon,"* and determines the specific 
gravity of the latter by that of the former. However, we do not yet 
learn, that this costly gem has been used for manure, even in the 
flowerpots of the richest chemical practitioner. 

All living, as well as decaying animal and vegetable substances, 
are continually emitting volatile enriching and fertilizing matters. 
The means used for conveying antl spreading this matter have 
been described ; and as it is clearly seen that maize gathers and 
advantageously applies this nutriment, before its specific gravity, 
which is greater than the common air, causes it to sink to and in- 
corporate with the soil, there is reason to believe, that all plants 
possess the same power, in a greater or less degree, although the 
economy of most of them may not be so readily investigated as 
that of the corn plant. 

Nature seems to have a threefold purpose in view, in her ma- 
nagement of these fertilizing matters. First, to equalize it; as it 
necessarily arises in much greater quantities in some places than 
in others.' Secondly, to furnish plants with as much of it as their 
organs above the soil are capable of gathering and properly apply- 
ing. Thirdly, to use the remainder within the soil on which it 
falls ; and no question but it adds considerably to the enriching 
matter contained in it: especially when the vegetation growing on 
it is well calculated to gather and shield these fertilizing deposi- 
tions from the injurious influence of the sun and air. 

It is therefore, " Neither charcoal nor hydrogen, nor azote, nor 
oxygen alone. Neither is it," as Sir H. says, " all of them toge- 
ther, in their various states and combinations, that affords the pa- 
bulum of vegetable life,"t unless these combinations also embrace 
the enriching and fertilizing matters described above. 

Every farmer in the back-woods so often sees charred vegetable 
substances, both above and beneath the soil, that he knows charcoal 
is dissolved or is decomposed too slowly to do him any perceptible 
good. 

», Sir H. says, " Oxygen is necessary to some functions in vegeta- 
bles ; but its great importance in nature is in relation to the eco- 
nomy of animals. It is absolutely necessary to their life ;" and 
that " seeds are incapable of germinating, except when oxygen is 
present ;"| also, that " the eflfects of azote, in vegetation, are not 
distinctly known. As it is found in some of the products of vege- 
tation, it may be absorbed by certain plants from the atmosphere."^ 
Likewise, that "hydrogen, or inflammable air, is the lightest known 
substance. It burns by the action of an inflamed taper ;" and that 
water consists of two portions of hydrogen, and one of oxygen ;"|i 
also, that " the quantity of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is 
verv small. It is probably never more than one-five hundredth, 
nor" less than one-eight hundredth part of the volume of air;" and 

* See SirH. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 46. f Wem, page 18. 
7 Idem, pages 212 and 213. § Ibid. I! Idem, pages 45 and 52. 



94 

that '* carbonic acid is decomposed by heating potassium in it; 
the metal combines with oxygen, and the charcoal is deposited in 
the form of a black powder."* 

But it should be recollected, that this black powder has been 
still much more severely scorched than the carbonaceous matter 
left after fermentation and decomposition have completely reduced 
a dung heap j and that even the cookers of dung seem to think it is 
too much roasted, when nearly all the gravy has been extracted by 
the process : as one of the most zealous advocates for cooking it 
says, " It is questionable whether very old dung reduced to carbon 
is of any use to vegetation."! 

But to illustrate this subject, *• Charcoal has been separated 
from the purest spirits of wine, in the process of making ether."| 
As there can be but little if any nutritive matter in the spirits of 
^nne, there may be, and I believe is, but little if any nutritive 
matter in carbonic acid gas, notwithstanding charcoal was depo- 
sited in the form of a black powder when that gas was decom- 
posed. 

Now, if charcoal be what it clearly appears to be, and hydrogen, 
azote, and oxygen are what Sir H. says they are, I cannot see any 
use in "ringing" them, or either of them, unless it be to puzzle 
the plain practical farmer with " a string of technical terms," when 
he might be much better employed in ploughing or hoeing his 
grounds : especially if he follow nature and reason in the practice 
of husbandry ; and attentively observe the effects produced by his 
own mode of management, and compare what he is doing with the 
practice of others that may happen to be within the compass of his 
observation. 

Chemists have told us, that " putrefaction may be considered a 
slow combustion ;"§ and that " decomposition is effected slov/ly in 
the laboratory of nature without great heat, as it is done in our 
crucibles in a short time by the assistance of great heat."|| 

This inconsiderate theory seems to have led to the very injurious 
opinion, that carbonaceous substances, in which there can be but 
little if any nutritive matter, afford much food for plants. If ani- 
mal or vegetable substances be consumed by fire in the open air, 
the food contained in them for plants is scattered in the atmosphere, 
and nothing but the ashes remain : if those substances be exposed 
to a confined heat, as is often done by chemistry, and in the usual 
mode of forming charcoal, and in paring and burning the soil, the 
principal part of the food for plants is also scattered in the atmos- 
phere, and by no process known to us, can the little nutriment re- 
maining in the charcoal be brought into active use with sufficient 
despatch to promote vegetation, to any extent worthy the immediate 
attention of farmers. It is true, that decomposition sometimes 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 210 and 211. 

t See Mem. of the Fhilad. Agr See. vol. i. page 284. 

t See Domes. Encyc. Amer. edit, vol. ii. page 84. 

§ See Dr. Darwin's Pbytol. page 215. !) Idem, page 21 1 . 



95 

produces combustion, without the artificial application *' of great 
heat," as in hay put into the mow too green, &c. but these are the 
elTect of art. 

Nature, when permitted to pursue her own course, acts very 
differently, as may be seen by the gradual decay of the vegetable sub- 
stances in our forests, glades, and prairies. The annual plants, leaves 
from the trees, &c. fall on the ground as winter approaches ; these 
gradually decay, and during the process a certain portion of carbo- 
naceous matter is formed, as evidently appears from the dark co- 
loured matters seen to be mixed in fresh or new soil. It is, however, 
equally evident, that nothing like so much of the vegetable matter 
is charred by this slow decomposition, ordered by nature " without 
great heat," as is charred by the great heat employed by art. Nei- 
ther is any thing like as much of the nutriment for plants expelled 
from the carbonaceous matters formed by nature " without great 
heat;" as is expelled by the much greater heat employed by art to 
form these substances in a much shorter time. But this is not all, 
for much more of the nutriment expelled in forming the carbo- 
naceous matter " without great heat" is incorporated in the soil, than 
is done when these substances are formed "in a short time by the 
assistance of great heat." 

The great dissimilarity between the natural decomposition of the 
innumerable trees which age, tornadoes, &c. have prostrated in our 
lonely forests, and that of the wood reduced by art into charcoal, 
in a short time, with " the assistance of great heat," is still more 
obvious. The quantity of charcoal obtained in this instance " by 
great heat," is nearly equal in size to the quantity of the woody 
hbre of which it is formed ; whereas by the very simple but perfect 
economy of nature, in the decomposition of these huge bodies of 
wood, but very little carbonaceous matter is formed. 

As nature is not interrupted by the rude hand of man, tlie process 
is slowly conducted, and commonly underneath the shade formed 
by the plants growing on the ground. In this case, the mosses first 
vegetate and grow in the decomposition which takes place in the 
bark of the fallen tree. The decomposition of a part of the sap- 
wood furnishes nutriment for larger plants. Even the seeds of the 
largest trees grown on the grounds, vegetate in the decayed sap- 
wood, and sometimes attain their full size. The fallen leaves, 
twigs, &c. lodge in, among, and between this vegetation, and the 
leaves blown about by the winds are arrested by the sides and 
limbs of the fallen tree. This greatly defends the surface, until it 
gradually decays, and much manure is saved. 

There are also plants which nature seems to have formed to de- 
light more in the nutriment found in contact with the decaying 
wood than with that contained in the soil. The tops of the tea 
berry, (or mountain tea, as it is called by some,) are quite small, 
and seldom rise more than four or five inches above the soil ; but 
the roots are very extensive and large. They seem to delight in 
running underneath the fallen timber or into the crevices formed by 



96 

decay in the wood. In clearing of grounds, I have often observed, 
when a large fallen tree has been cut up and removed, the whole 
of the hollow formed in the earth bj the weight of it so closely 
thatched by the numerous and long roots of the tea berry, (which 
seem to have run and matted from one end to the other of the tree,) 
that no vestige of the earth was to be seen, and thus vegetation 
greatly adds to the amount of the manure. 

When a tree happens to fall where it is not defended by shade, 
the bark, after some little time, falls oft'; the outside of the wood be- 
comes seasoned, (as did the felloes of Mr. Bordley's cart wheels, 
mentioned before,) and the interior of the tree, like the interior of 
the felloes, is decomposed. In this case, the thin seasoned shell, 
on the outside of the tree, continues sound for some time after the 
inward parts of it have been reduced to a powdery substance; by 
which means the evaporation from the interior is greatly retarded. 

In neither of those cases of decomposition does nature char the 
woody fibre. For either previously to, or in the ploughing of grounds, 
which had been recently cleared from their wood, I have often traced 
the matter arising from the entire as well as the partial decay of the 
woody fibre of many a tree. It lay partly above, and partly within 
the surface of the soil. In some instances the whole of the body 
of the tree was reduced to powder, and no traces of woody fibre ap- 
peared. In other cases, more or less of the woody fibre was clearly 
seen : but in no instance did any thing like charcoal appear. How- 
ever, as the decomposition progresses beyond the powdery state 
described above, no question but carbonaceous matter is formed, 
but not in large and injurious quantities; neither is this carbona- 
ceous matter stripped of any thing like as much nutriment as is that 
obtained " by great heat in a much shorter time," nor is any thing 
like so much of the nutritious matters expelled by the moderate 
heat employed by nature in the decomposition of the woody fibre, as 
is expelled by " the great heat" employed by art in reducing it to 
charcoal. 

Accident, as well as art, sometimes forms charcoal by a great 
smothered heat. In this case, if the process be favourably conducted, 
the coal retains the form, and apparently near the size, of the sub- 
stances from which it was made. Thus we are told, that "there 
exists charcoal made of corn, (probably in the day of Caesar,) which 
is in so complete a state, that the wheat may be distinguished from 
the rye."* But it should be recoiflected, that although the size and 
form of the grain is yet to be seep, but very little of the rich nu- 
tritive matter originally containerf*in it remains. 

" Dr. Priestly discovered, that several of the metals, such as cop- 
per, iron, silver, &c. might be converted into charcoal.''t Common 
sense, however, dictates, there is just as much reason to believe, 
that converting copper, iron, silver, &c. into charcoal, will render 
them more valuable, for agricultural purposes, as there is to believe 
that converting animal and vegetable matter into charcoal, (or car- 

* See Domes. Encyc. Amer. Edit. vol. ii. page 84. t Ibid. 



97 

boil, as it is now called,) will increase the value of these substances, 
Here I -beg leave to observe, that when it has been proved that 
the charcoal (or even the salts which Sir H. seems to overlook) 
arising from the destruction of the animal and vegetable substances, 
are more valuable than the substances themselves, the soil should 
be burned ; but not until this has been done, unless a superabun- 
dance of these substances render the destruction of a part of them 
necessary to an efficient vegetation. 

I will conclude this chapter by observing, that although the plain 
practical farmer may know but little of the rules of grammar, and 
less of tlie theory of science, and " the long string of technical terms 
by wiiich these gases have been rung," it is certainly high time for 
him to assert the interest of agriculture, when gentlemen who do 
understand these theories step so very far aside from nature and 
reason, as highly to recommend charcoal as a valuable manure for 
plants ; notwithstanding the observations and records of ages de- 
termine, that this substance is, in its nature and properties, capable 
of withstanding the corroding tooth of time so long, that it has 
been classed among those substances which have been, erroneously, 
called indestructible. 

I have certainly no desire to " ring" technical terms. On the 
contrary, it is well known to my friends here, that my book on 
Manures and Vegetation was written in the plain simple language 
commonly used by plain practical farmers ; and that although it 
explained the economy of nature in our forests, &c. and every 
thing else which I had then considered necessary to these interest- 
ing subjects, the whole was comprised in less than one-third of the 
extent of the book which I am now writing on these subjects. For 
in consequence of having seen and considered Sir H. Davy's book 
on Agricultural Chemistry, after my first book on Manures arid Ve- 
getation was written, I was clearly convinced, that unless the erro- 
neous theories advanced by this gentleman were refuted, my 
labour to promote the interest of agriculture would be in a great 
measure lost. 

It is certainly high time for even those who depend on nature, 
reason, and observation alone, to oppose the professors of science, 
when they attach so much consequence to charcoal, as to make it a 
principal ingredient in "the pabulum of vegetable life,"* and also 
say, that "no substance is more necessary to plants than carbonaceous 
matter :"t likewise, that "many plants that grow on rocks or soils, 
containing no carbonic matter, can only be supposed to acquire 
their charcoal from the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere."! 

Here I would ask, what Sir H. can mean by saying plants " ac- 
quire their charcoal from the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere." 
For although it is highly probable that they may acquire some pure 
carbon from this source, it is by no means probable, that they also 

* Sir H.Davy's Lectures oa Agr. Chem. pag'e IS. 
■i Idem, pag-e SfO. t Idem, page 231. 



98 

acquire, or possess anj power to apply in any part of their economy, 
the coal in which carbon is found, after any animal or vegetable 
substance has been charred either by great heat, or by the fermenta- 
tion and decomposition employed by nature. 

With respect to plants growing "on rocks, or soils containing no 
carbonic matter," Sir H. should have recollected that the same 
cause which he says furnished the plants growing on them with 
" their charcoal" was in continual action; and also in contact with 
those rocks and soils very long before the plants existed ; and that 
the same causes which conveyed the seed of the plants to the rocks, 
also conveys, with equal facility, the ingredients necessary to an 
efficient vegetation. 

Now, if in all material points the contents of this and the fore- 
going chapters be (as I believe they are) correct, it would appear, 
that although much has been written on the economy of plants, and 
the nature and properties of manures, but little is well known of 
either; and that if these subjects be ever "scientifically explained," 
philosophers must retrace their steps, and depend much less on 
theory, and far more on practice, united with elaborate observation. 

If this had been done, charcoal and the gases would not have been 
rung, until nature was silenced, and reason deafened with the 
sound. Neither should we have been told, that the "heart-wood 
of a tree is dead, and is only useful to elevate and sustain aloft the 
swarm of biennial plants which cover it. Nor that " gravitation 
disposes the parts of plants lo take a uniform direction." Nor that 
t\\ey "owe their perpendicular direction to gravity." Nor that the 
sap is raised by the agency of heat and capillary attraction, or by 
" the expansion and contraction of the silver grain of the wood.'' 
Neither should we have been told, that " nothing above common 
matter exists in the vegetable economy." Nor that " all the simple 
leaves of plants had an arrangement at night totally different from 
their arrangement in the day ; and that the greater number of them 
are seen at night closed or folded together." Nor that gypsum, the 
alkalies, and various saline substances, are a part of the true food 
of plants. Nor that the carbonate of lime acts merely by forming 
an useful earthy ingredient in the soil. 

The celebrity of a philosopher whose talents are highly esteemed, 
may for a time stamp an ideal value even on his errors. Still, 
those errors would be eventually detected and exposed, if the gen- 
tlemen who followed him in writing on the same subject, would ex- 
amine facts for themselves, as they stand recorded in the great book 
of nature " by the pencil of truth," in place of sitting at ease in their 
libraries, surrounded by a huge collection of books, and forminj^ 
theories of what is said of nature in them.* 

* It is evident, however, that an intimate acquaintance with what is said of 
nature in those books is highly important, when it is made subservient to 
practical observation. 



CHAPTER VIII, 



It has been wisely ordered that man and animals in g-eneral should loathe and 
reject decaying animal and vegetable substances, and that | lants should live 
on putrescent matter in all the various forms it has been destined to assume. 
How these matters are spread and intimately blended by Nature over all soils. 
Farm yard manure loses one-half, when decomposed previously to using it. 
Laboriously formed compounds considered. It is shown that nature is not 
deficient in the processes of fermentation and decomposition The use of 
stimulating manures considered. lYesh dung highly incorporated with 
litter, is effectually decomposed after it has been ploughed under the soil, 
and keeps either clay or sandy soils moister during a dry time than dec im- 
posed dung. Top dressing with putrescent manures a very wasteful prac- 
tice : still the best mode of doing it explained The loss in manure arising 
from improper practices considered. A description of the best mode of 
constructing cattle yards. Also of preserving dung from waste A de- 
scription of a common receptacle caJculated to save the manures arising 
in and about a farmer's house. 

-I- HE fruitless attempts to make farm yard manure a more proper 
food for plants, has been a perpetual source of extensive waste and 
much injurious and expensive labour. 

The gentlemen who have attempted to point out the food on 
which plants live, differ so widely, that it is impossible to believe 
they understood the subject. It is evident, however, that where 
decaying animal and vegetable matters abound, vegetation also 
abounds ; and where the soil is deficient in these substances, it 
languishes and becomes unproductive. Therefore, it seems evident, 
that these substances aftbrd the proper food for plants ; and that 
nature understands the preparing of them, appears to be proved, 
by the luxuriant vegetation which generally prevails, where art has 
not interfered with her simple but perfect system of management. 

Plants seem to subsist on the same food as man, and many of 
them appear to be equally carnivorous, as they thrive much better 
where animal matter abounds. Still nature, intent on promoting 
animal and vegetable life to the utmost extent, has wisely ordered, 
that man, and animals in general, should loathe and reject decaying 
animal and vegetable substances; and that plants should live on 
putrescent matters, in all the various forms it has been destined 
to assume. 

But as it was necessary to spread the larger masses of these sub- 
stances over the surface of the earth, some of the larger animals, 
and numerous tribes of animalculae were calculated to live volup- 
tuously on them, and to spread this matter over the ground. Thus 
we see, when the larger animals die, that in common certain quad- 
rupeds or birds soon devour them, and spread the nutritious matter 



100 

over the soil. Or, when this iloes not happen, innumerable animal- 
cule are generated, so soon as the state of the atmosphere favoors 
fermentation. These riot on the carcass until nothing but the bones 
remain. They then take wing and carry with them the injurious 
excess of matter, and eventually spread it with compound interest 
where it will be useful. Even the gaseous effluvia arising from the" 
fermentation of the decaying animal appears to be as profitably 
applied by nature as any other part of it : in fact nothing seems to 
be lost by her. What appears to "be a waste in one part of her ex- 
tensive domain, is valuably applied in some other part of it. 

Notwithstanding nature is careful to gather and apply the animal 
and vegetable matters, that the inconsiderate farmer suffers to be 
e\haled by the sun, scattered by the winds, and washed away by 
the rain and melting snows, he should recollect, that a great loss is 
sustained by him; especially if he be in the habit of endeavouring 
to make the scanty remains of his dung a better food for plants. 

Our eyes and nose, without the aid of chemistry, are sufficient 
to inform us, that farm yard manure loses one half, if it be 
kept twelve months, and in proportion if it be kept a shorter 
time, while the season favours decomposition. Yet it appears 
that philosophers and farmers have long been puzzling them- 
selves and the world with the great advantages to be derived from 
laboriously formed compounds. They, however, and the world, 
might have long since seen, that they have generally differed so 
■widely in the nutritive principles said to be produced by these 
combinations, that the result of their experiments has been better 
calculated to bewilder than to instruct; especially as they have re- 
commended septic substances to be mixed with farmyard and other 
putrescent manures, while they applied these substances to destroy 
the putrid matters arising in privies and elsewhere, and might have 
seen that the value of putrescent manures consists in applying them 
in that way which is best calculated to save all their putrid parti- 
cles, to be diffused throughout the soil. 

It is true, some gentlemen have condemned the practise of mix- 
ing quick lime with putrescent manures, and have, in the place of 
it, recommended effete lime, supposing that this mixture intro- 
duced certain principles which greatly enhanced the value of the 
compound. . 

Lime, however, even in this milder state, promotes decomposi- 
tion, and is very injurious to the best properties of the manure. 
Therefore, these unnatural and laborious mixtures should be avoid- 
ed : at least, until the gentlemen who have recommended them Can 
agree among themselves in what the valuable properties of their 
expensive compounds consist. 

Some philosophers and farmers say, that important advantages 
are to be derived from mixing rich mould with farm yard manure. 
It is evident, however, that uniting these substances does not aug- 
ment them ; and that the united mass is but the value of the arti- 
cles separately. As it is generally believed, that unless the com- 
post be frequently turned, and well incorporated, by much labour 



101 

Hid expense, it is not properly prepared, by these means much oi 
tlie riches of the dung escape. 

If rich soil be considered necessary to eke out the dung, it should 
be hauled either before or after it, and spread under or over it ; or 
each spread on separate parts of the field. The latter would be the 
better practice, as it would determine the comparative value of 
each. 

I have hauled and spread much mould; but the improvement has 
very generally fallen far short of remunerating the expense. This 
will always occur, unless the earth be highly impregnated with ani- 
mal or vegetable matter. It is these substances contained in it, and 
not the earth, (of which it is commonly.principally composed,) that 
enrich the ground. 

If it could be admitted that the mixing of dung and soil together, 
creates other valuable substances, and greatly enhances the value 
of the compound, certainly the same eftects would be produced, 
with but very little comparative labour, by turning the farm yard 
manure under the soil. The substances, in either case, are the same ; 
except that a richer soil is generally provided for the compost ; but 
this is purchased with great labour and expense, and but too often, 
by impoverishing the woodlands, or some other part of the farm. 
A full grown crop of the grasses or weeds, grown on the grounds 
and turned under with the dung, would very generally furnish much 
more nutriment for plants, than the mould without any addi 
lional labour. The dung being evenly spread over, and closely 
covered within the soil, at a depth greatly favouring fermentation, 
will be gradually and most effectually decomposed, and spread its 
riches through it with the least possible loss; and the supposed 
creation of other valuable principles, would more abundantly (ake 
place : especially if the dung be turned under previously to the too 
general loss sustained by decomposition. 

Nature cannot be deficient in the process of fermentation and 
decomposition, as on these the existence of all animated nature es- 
pecially depends. . That she is not deficient, may be clearly seen 
by only observing the rapid decay of a post near the surface of the 
soil. We may also see, that she knows how to concentrate her most 
powerful efforts, where they are best calculated to promote an im- 
portant end, as the decay of the post above and below this interest- 
ing point, is very slow indeed. This simple post also shows, that 
too many are very deficient in observation, or they would not have 
considered nature as incapable of promoting the most obvious and 
useful operations committed to her care. 

This, however, as well as many other things, is best seen in our 
forests, where she alone presides. There vegetation is much more 
luxuriant than it is to be found where man is perpetually opposing 
her perfect economy, by some inconsiderate practice, originating 
either in barbarism or philosophical theories, misunderstood, or im- 
properly applied. 

Nothing can be more effectually accomplished than is the gradual 



i62 

decomposition of animal and vegetable substances in the great labo- 
ratory of nature. She may, for aught we know to the contrary, very 
advantageously employ, in this process, causes that are unknown, or 
not yet well understood by us. We may all see, however, that where 
a favourable proportion of moisture, heat, and air exists, the fer- 
mentation and decomposition of animal and vegetable matters cer- 
tainly follow. This process is generally more or less rapid, as the 
substances may happen to be more or less solid. Still, an}' of the 
substances commonly used for litter, will be decomposed with suffi- 
cient despatch, provided they be well saturated with the rich juices 
of the cattle yard, and a proper system of cultivation be pursued. 

If, however, the folly or cupidity of man has exhausted the ani- 
mal and vegetable matters contained in the soil, nature does not 
alter her usual course to meet his wishes by a hasty and unnatural 
decomposition of the remainder: but art can compel the speedy 
application of those scanty remains, by the use of stimulating ma- 
nures. 

When a due proportion of the vegetation excited by these means 
is judiciously returned to the soil, it is vastly more speedily re- 
stored to its original fertility, than could have been effected by the 
joint efforts of nature and art, in any other way known to us, ex- 
cept by the introduction of extraneous enriching manures. 

It should, however, be recollected that the nutriment arising from 
this hasty decomposition, is in this case profitably applied, and 
that in attempting to make farm yard manure a better food for 
plants, by the different modes that have hitherto been pursued, a 
very considerable proportion of its best nutritive properties is de- 
stroyed before it is used. 

Some writers say, when fresh dung is applied to plants, that fer- 
mentation is not excited, and that it becomes a dryish wisp, incapa- 
ble of affording nutriment for plants. Others say, fresh or hot dung 
(as they term it,) injures vegetation by an excess of heat. Both 
cannot be right, as they are directly opposed to each other. 

I have been in the practice of planting Indian corn on grass lays, 
or corn mixed with other plants, and of cutting off the corn by the 
roots in the fall, and seeding the grounds with wheat. 

My cattle yards and stalls were profusely littered with corn 
stalks, straw, leaves, &c.; of consequence, the manure for my corn 
crops consisted principally of these substances. They were ploughed 
under the soil early in the spring, but not without some difficulty, 
as it required the active exertions of a boy with a forked stick to 
clear the head of the plough. Still, when the grounds were culti- 
vated for the wheat, those substances were so far decomposed, that 
but little, if any, traces of their original form appeared ; even when 
my grounds were ploughed previously to the sowing of the wheat. 

This practice has not been confined to soil or climate. The re- 
sult has been the same in loams, stiff retentive clay, and on light 
sandy soil. Likewise in the climate where I now reside, which is 



103 

much cooler throughout the summer, and much moister than where 
1 formerly lived. 

Dung well stored with litter is a good non-conductor of heat. It 
therefore greatly retards evaporation from the ground underneath 
it. It also absorbs much moisture, and while the ground above it 
is dryer than that underneath, the moisture is continually absorbed 
from the earth below, and diffused through the soil above. Thus 
in any soil or climate the ground is much moister during a dry 
time, where dung well stored with litter is used, than where de- 
composed dung has been applied : provided the cultivation be cal- 
culated to suffer the dung to remain undisturbed, and closely co- 
vered within the soil. 

The destructive use of septic substances has been practised in 
every possible way. Great masses of mould were formerly incor- 
porated by manual labour with lime, by frequently turning and 
mixing the contents. However, a considerable saving of labour 
has since been effected, by incorporating the lime with the mould 
by frequent ploughing and harrowing the mass; especially when 
the soil accumulated on the head lands is used for this purpose. 

But as it is believed in either practice that the compost is not 
properly prepared, unless time is given between the mixings for 
the creation of certain enriching principles, that are supposed to be 
formed during the process, the animal and vegetable matters con- 
tained in the mould are very extensively destroyed by decomposi- 
tion. The exposure to the air, sun, rains, &c. during the process, 
greatly favours the escape of gaseous effluvia arising therefrom. 
Were it not that the lime contained in the compost acts power- 
fully on the soil to which this compound is applied, much less be- 
nefit would arise from the application of it. 

If such expensive mixtures are made, they should be applied im- 
mediately after they have been incorporated : or it would be a far 
better practice to haul and spread the mould first, and after the 
lime had been spread over it, to incorporate the whole by the tined 
harrow, with the surface'bf the cultivated soil underneath it. This 
would be done with much less labour, and the improvement would 
be equally great. In either case, but little or perhaps nothing is 
lost by the hasty decomposition of the animal and vegetable mat- 
ters, as it is applied to the growth of the crops. Still, it should be 
remembered, that where there is animal and vegetable matter 
enough to promote a sufficient decomposition for the luxuriant 
growth of the first crop, that the hasty and unnatural decomposi- 
tion of the overplus not only wastes, but also renders it far less 
useful to the round of crops, and the grasses following. 

The soil v/ill be less expanded, and the plants less excited, by 
the more feeble fermentation that will naturally arise, after this 
useless decomposition of too much of the animal and vegetable 
matters has been effected. 

In common, however, a full grown crop of the grasses, or weeds, 
grown on the soil and ploughed under it, with the application of 



104 

the lime aione, incorporated bj the tined harrow, with the surface 
of the sod, after it has been reversed and properly prepared,, will 
provide more nutriment for plants, than the lime and mould ap- 
plied in any way ; and will also save the very expensive labour of 
digging, hauling, and spreading the mould. 

But so infatuated are many with laboriously compounded in- 
gredients, or the quackery of farming, (namely, injudicious, ex- 
pensive, and but too often destructive compounds,) that they tell 
us the mixing of lime with sand, forms a very valuable compost 
for grass grounds. It is evident, however, that inert sand fur- 
nishes no matters on which the lime can act profitably. The only 
advantage which can be derived from this labour is, that time, with 
the turning and mixing, cause the lime to become less caustic, 
and this may be equally as well obtained by suffering it to remain 
unapplied, until time alone has effected the same purpose. 

By top dressing, much of the best properties of the putrescent 
manures are exhaled or wasted in the way that has been described. 
If to this be added the too general loss sustained by decomposition 
before the manure is applied, it will be found that but little good 
can be done by a great deal of it, when used in this way. 
\. If dung be used for top dressing, it should be applied soon after 
tlie first crop of grass has been mown; and before the manure has 
suffered any material loss by fermentation. The grasses should 
be suffered to grow until they form a close shade. After this, they 
may be pastured; provided a good covering of them be preserved. 
This will prevent much exhalation ; it will also keep the soil much 
more open to receive the juices of the manure. As water does not 
pass off so freely through a close pile of grass, much of the coarser 
particles of the washings from the manure, will be arrested in their 
progress through it, and much more of the juices from the dung 
will sink into the soil. The close covering also greatly favours 
the decomposition of the litter, and by keeping it flexible, causes 
it to sink further into the soil, and lie much closer to it. There- 
fore but little if any of it will be found in the waj of mowing the 
ensuing crop of grass, or of making it into hay ; provided the ma- 
nure be very evenly spread over the ground. 'But as the want of 
the second crop for hay and other circumstances, may readily pre- 
vent the cultivator from hauling the dung at the proper time, he 
may haul and spread it any time before frost sets in; but not with 
the same advantage. Still, if care be taken in raking up the hay of 
the ensuing crop, but little of the litter will appear among it. 

Top dressing, however, with putrescent manures, is, under the 
most favourable circumstances, a very wasteful practice, and should 
be avoided, where population is sufficient to admit the practice of 
convertible husbandry ; except by those who prefer the ease ob- 
tained by grazing exclusively, to a more active and much more 
profitable mode of management. 

When ashes, gypsum, lime, &c. are applied to the grass grounds, 
it must be by top dressing. But either of these substances is rnort* 



105 

extensively useful to cultivated crops, when they are properly 
incorporated with the soil. 

fit is difficult to calculate the losses arising from the prevailing 
prScTices of gathering, preparing and using the manure, that might 
be obtained from the general resources of a farm. Some manage 
better, and others worse. Neither weight nor measure to ascertain 
these losses can be referred to. We may, however, form a tolerable 
estimate of their amount, by summing up the supposed losses 
arising from each improper practice; and as well as it may be done, 
averaging the losses. This must centre between the best and 
worst practices in general use. 1 have clone this, and believe the 
loss cannot be less than seven-eighths of die whole, which might be 
very readily saved by good management, and a proper cultivation. 

Whether farmers consider it too troublesome to drive their 
cattle to and from water, during the season for feeding them on 
dry fodder, or erroneously suppose they are benefited by the exer- 
cise of strolling about the lanes and highways, or are governed by 
custom, and pay no attention to the subject, is unknown to me. 
Such is, however, the too general practice, and if the days were as 
long as the nights, and the cattle turned out early, a great many 
farmers would lose half their manure by this inconsiderate practice 
alone. 

I have heard of cattle yards calculated to save the manure : but 
although I am now advanced on the wrong side of sixty, I can 
truly say that I do not recollect to have ever seen but one cattle 
yard, that did not admit the washing rains and melting snows to 
pass through them, so as to sween away the riches of the manure, 
unless perchance they happened to be placed on some spot, which 
naturally turned off the water coming from the adjacent grounds. 
From this a great loss must occur ; especially as 1 have often seen, 
that the farmer, to keep himself and his cattle from being mired in 
the cattle yard, had cut drains to let off the offending matter; 
although his cornstalks, and very often his corn fodder too, were 
suffered to stand and dry rot in his fields, and much straw was 
also seen lying about his barn. 

Nothing can be more simple or cheap than the proper construc- 
tion of a cattle yard. Some are made concave with great labour 
and expense. These save the manure, but must be too wet to be 
healthy or comfortable. A flat is not desirable ; but when unavoid- 
able, may be kept dry with some labour and contrivance. A de- 
clivity is best, with a small drain dug round the outsirle of the fence ; 
and the earth from it formed into a bank utider the bottom rail, 
high enough to exclude the water from without. A wide hole, 
formed somewhat like a ditch, should be made on the outside of 
the fence, at the lowest end or side of the yard, to receive the 
drainings from the manure, taking care to prevent the water from 
the outside of the yard from running into it. In this, spread a layer of 
earth that has been broken to pieces tolerably fine by digging, pitch- 
ing, &c. to imbibe the washings carried off from the yard, by the rains 





406 

and melting snows which full into it. When this becomes fully 
saturated, add another layer, proceeding in this way until you wish 
to remove the manure. The earth digged from the ditch may be used 
for this purpose while it lasts. After it has been expended, any 
earth, except sand, or a compact clay, (if free from stones,) that 
may happen either to lie in your way, or can be got with the least 
expense, may be used for the same purpose. For, as it has been 
observed before, it is not the earth, but the animal and vegetable 
matter contained in it, that enriches the soil. Therefore if you 
have any mould that will pay for hauling, digging and spreading, 
it will be far better to haul it immediately to your tields than to 
haul it twice; particularly as a poor or inert earth is capable of 
imbibing much more of the animal and vegetable matter from the 
washijiffs, than one that is already well stored with the same ma- 
terial SjJ 

'TfTiquid manure be preferred, dig a hole in the form of a well 
to receive the drainings from the yard. This should be kept co- 
vered, to prevent evaporation and accidents. I believe that time, 
with the materials running into it, will puddle the bottom and 
sides, so as to make it nearly if not quite water tight. This hap- 
pened in a sink digiged through a loose clay into a stratum of sand, 
to run oiF the water from my pump and kitchen. If the matters 
filling up the pores of the sand were not occasionally scraped oft', 
the water would rise up and run over the top of it. We also see 
that hollows, even in sandy grounds, are pudd led and made water tight 
by the materials washed into them. The pump, spouts, casks, &c. ne- 
cessary to the removal of liquid manure, with the difficulty of spread- 
ing it regularly, seemed to introduce expense, complication, and 
perplexity; therefore the ditch and earth were used by me. Some 
loss unavoidably arises from evaporation, but not so great as at 
first sight appears. The juices from the manure are generally 
heavier than the rain water that conveys them into the ditch : this 
causes much of them to sink under it, and when the water has 
evaporated, they should be covered with a light layer of earth. 

Paving, and various methods have been proposed to make the bot- 
tom of cattTe yards impervious to the juices of the manure. No 
contrivance, however, except a costly cement under the pavement 
appears likely to be effectual, and even this is doubtful ; but if it 
were not, the expense does not seem to accord with the proper eco- 
nomy of farming. Therefore,, the native earth may be justly con- 
sidered the most profitable bottom that is yet known to us. When 
the dung is removed, the yard may be scraped so far down, as a suf- 
ficiency of the juices have penetrated to make the earth a valuable 
manure. After this, if the natural form of the ground require al- 
teration, the hollows may be filled up by the heights every spring, 
so far as leisure may permit, until the bottom of the yard is reduced 
to the best form the situation will admit. 

After the annual scrapings have made the bottom of the yard too 
low, it should be well filled up, with any kind of earth free from 



107 

stones, (sand and a compact clay excepted,) that will cost the least 
labour. This ought to be done soon after the dung is removed in 
the spring, that the bottom may become hard before the winter feed- 
ing commences. Sand is too loose to imbibe the juices from the 
dung, for they pass too freely through it, and compact clay is too 
impervious to be readily enriched by them. 

Some suppose that great advantages are derived by well cover- 
ing the cattle yard annually with mould, marl, &c. Such a cover- 
ing does not, in the course of one year, imbibe enough of the juices 
to pay for the double digging, hauling, and spreading of it. It also 
keeps the yard too wet, and is incapable of absorbing nearly all the 
juices that are swept oft'by heavy rains and melting snows. At all 
other times, the open texture of the straw, cornstalks, and other 
vegetable substances used for litter, calculates them, in proportion to 
their weight to imbibe much more of the juices than the earth, and 
certainly they are in themselves much more enriching. 

If the earth be considered useful, either as a mechanical or en- 
riching manure, much useless and injurious labour would be saved 
by hauling and spreading it at once on the fields. 

The richer dung from the stables and sheds should be wheeled 
and spread over the longer and poorer manure in the yard. This, 
with frequ. ntly littering the yard, together with the treading of the 
cattle, will mix the whole together, without the extra expense of 
turning, mixing, and heaping it : provided the cultivator sees that 
the business is properly conducted. But little loss will arise from 
fermentation, when compared with that which will take place, even 
through the winter, when the rich manure is piled up in heaps. 
The extensive body and richness of it greatly favours fermentation. 

As it is far better, under any system of management, for the cattle 
to run at large in the yard, through the day, unless the weather be 
bad, moveable hay-savers for holding the hay, corn fodder, &c. 
should be constructed, that the rich droppings from the cattle may 
be regularly spread over the yard ; unless they be fed under open 
sheds, and are never confined. The formation of these savers are 
simple, and will be explained, and also the cheapestand best method 
of sheltering cattle through the winter. 

The farm yard manure that is left or gathered after the early fal- 
low crops have been planted, may be preserved from any very ma- 
terial waste, by heaping it on a layer of earth sufficiently thick to 
absorb the drainings from it, and covering the heap with as much 
mould as will imbibe the principal part of the gaseous effluvia arising 
from the manure. A thick covering of pure compact clay will pre- 
vent any loss from evaporation ; but such a covering will imbibe so 
little of the matter from the dung, that it would be of little or no 
use for manure. 

If the dunji must be kept throughout the summer, a thick coat of 
thatch over the covering of mould will greatly retard fermentation ; 
for straw is a good non-conducter of heat. It would also prevent 
the escape of the volatile matter from the manure, and the covering of 



108 

mould would be much better saturated with, it. If the straw be used 
for litter, nothing will be lost that can be readily saved. Any loose 
straw, if put on sufficiently thick, will do equally as well as a regular 
thatch ; nay, much better, for it will cost much less labour. He is 
the best farmer who grows the best crops, and most extensively 
improves his soil, with the least possible labour and expense. 

Since it has become fashionable for gentlemen possessing im- 
mense estates to farm, the farming world seems to have been so in- 
tent on what has been considered improvement that they appear to 
have forgotten , (especially in England,") that one of the most valu- 
able improvements, which can be made in agriculture, is to simplify 
it, so that every thing may be done with the least possible labour or 
expense, that is consistent with a good cultivation, and the improve- 
ment of the soil. 

The Farmer's Journal, published in London, clearly and very pa- 
thetically delineates the very distressing situation in which the agri- 
culturists of that country are involved; but one of the principal 
causes of this distress seems to have been overlooked. The increase 
of the taxes is loudly complained of, and not without cause; but 
it would appear that the tithe is now considered an insupportable 
burden. It is true that this tax has been always deservedly un- 
popular; still it has not, until of late, been considered an intolerable 
burden. On the contrary, it has been, for a very great while, paid 
•without any very apparent injury to agriculture. However, in the 
whole of the complaints, which have been made, in almost every 
shape and form, against taxation, it seems to have been entirely for- 
gotten, that agriculture may tax itself, as highly as any government 
possessing common prudence dare venture ; especially, in a country 
where tlie people may not only complain, but must and will be event- 
ually heard. But as this very interesting subject is more particu- 
larly connected with gentlemen farming and cultivation, I refer the 
reader to my books on these subjects, for an explanation of the ex- 
pensive practices, as well as the very injurious alterations, which 
have been too generally made in the size of the farms, and also in 
the farmers, as is clearly seen by the practice of too many of those, 
by whom the soil is now extensively cultivated. 

Here, however, I would ask, whether it be possible that the agri- 
culture of any country can permanently flourish, where a middle 
grade of gentry have been created, to stand between the owners and 
the cultivators of the soil, who must be nearly as extravagantly fed 
and clothed, and their children as politely educated, as the propri- 
etors of the land, although neither of them labour on it.^ Certainly 
not, for the cultivators of the soil in every country ought to be a 
hardy, active, laborious, intelligent, and economical race of men. 
And the owners of it ought to set the example of the best modes 
of cultivation and management, accomplished with the least possi- 
ble labour and expense. 

Agriculture is greatly indebted to Sir Humphrey Davy. For 



109 

although his experiments on farm yard manure determine nothing 
more, than our eyes and nose might have long since done, still his 
great chemical talents will powerfully enforce a more rational use 
of this highly important article. 

However, as things which he has recommended respecting it, do 
not appear to accord with nature and reason, harmonized in the 
practice of husbandry, they should be controverted ; especially as 
Sir H. quotes the celebrated A. Young to show, that practice ac- 
cords with his theory; and Judge Peters says, that " Mr. Young's 
dung is not the straw and unfermented mass, applied by hot and 
fresh muck farmers."* 

If my memory be correct, Mr. Young formerly considered the 
dung under his sheds, which was in a high state of fermentation, 
much better than that in his yard which had not fermented. If so, 
his candour in the present instance is worthy of imitation. In a 
lecture read some time ago before the British Board of Agriculture, 
he asserts, that "were the practice of using fresh dung general, it 
would add above twenty millions sterling to the produce of the 
kingdom." 

Among other proofs to support this assertion, he introduces the 
practice of Mr. Ducket, a v^ry intelligent but plain practical far- 
mer; and in doing this, says, " Dependent on the trench plough, is 
Mr. Ducket's system of dunging; he conceives, and I apprehend 
very justly, that the more dunghills are stirred, and turned over, 
and rotted, the more of their virtue is lost. It is not a question of 
straw merely wetted, but good long dung. Without the trench 
ploughing, however, his opinion would be difFerent."t 
yXrench ploughing is certainly by far the best practice where the 
soil IS rich and deep, or manure is very plentifully applied. When, 
however, the soil is thin, and manure scanty, trench ploughing is 
very injurious, both to the crop and the soil, as will be hereafter 
explained. 

But as little trench ploughing is done in this country, practice 
determines that fresh, long dung well turned under, from five to six 
inches deep, is equally efficacious in proportion to the soil, depth of 
ploughing, and manure; provided the crop be properly cultivated 

There is no standard to determine exactly what good fresh long 
•dung is : but as Mr. Ducket is a good farmer, there can be no 
doubt but, like every other farmer of the same description, he care- 
fully gathers and uses all the litter his farm will afford : therefore, 
his long fresh manure must be much the same as has been recom- 
mended by those whom Mr. Peters calls "hot and fresh muck far- 
mers." But what he means by " the straw and unfermented mass^- 
applied by "hot and fresh muck farmers," is certainly beyond my 
comprehension. 

If the word "moss" be meant to include more straw or other litter 
than is commonly used on a well ordered farm, they would be more 

♦ See Mem. Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. iii. page 414. f Ibid, page 414, 415. 



110 

Justly termed "cold and fresh muck farmers." If this word be in- 
tended to include dung from the cattle in the quantities generally 
used by those whom he calls " hot and fresh muck farmers," the 
manure would be much the same as that used by Mr. Ducket, or 
any other good farmer, who applies his dung before it has been 
wasted by fermentation. However, leaving this enigma to be better 
explained by' the President, I will proceed. 

Sir H. Davy says, " a light incipient fermentation is undoubtedly 
of use in the dunghill, for by means of it a disposition is brought 
on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve when it is ploughed 
under the soil."* 

I have before shown, that practice and observation clearly deter- 
mine, that nature is not deficient in the processes of fermentation 
and decomposition ; and Sir Humphrey says himself, " When 
straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable manure, 
but there is likewise, on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. 
More manure is perhaps applied, for a single crop; but the land is 
less improved than it would be, supposing the whole vegetable mat- 
ter could be finely divided and mixed with the soil. 

"It is usual to carry straw, that cannot be employed, to the dung- 
hill to ferment and decompose ; but it is worth experiment, whe- 
ther it may not be more economically applied when chopped small 
and kept dry till it is ploughed in for the use of the crop."t 

Now if so much labour is to be expended to save the nutriment 
contained in dry straw, why is the dung to be wasted by fermen- 
tation to dispose the woody fibre or litter mixed with it to decay 
and dissolve? especially as a powerful disposition to fermentation 
is obtained by these substances being well saturated with the rich 
juices of dung. 

Sir H. Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry is a valuable 
book ; and every farmer who reads ought to have it. But he should 
not follow it, or any other book, (including^ mine among the rest,) 
further than the author follows nature and reason. It may be laid 
down as a maxim in Hirming, that no practice can be good that is 
opposed to either We may all see that favourite systems have 
such a powerful influence on the mind of man, that they too often 
cloud his understanding, and reason imperceptibly bends, and be- 
comes subservient to them. 

This gentleman says, " when farm yard dung cannot be immedi- 
ately applied to crops, the surface should be defended as much as 
possible. A compact marl or tenacious clay offers the best protec- 
tion against the air, and before the dung is covered, it should be 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem page 302. 

I See his Lee on Agr Chem. page 284. But here I would ask Sir H. by 
what newly invented machine, a sufficiency of dry sU*aw chopped small, could 
be ploughed under the soil, to be of any material use to agriculture. Also, 
whether he can seriously believe that any profits to be derived from farming, 
would pay for chopping straw small, keeping it dry, and using it in this state 
for manure. 



Ill 

dried as much as possible." " If the dung is found at any time to 
heat strongly, it should be turned over and cooled by exposure to 
the air."* " It should be defended from the sun. To preserve it 
under sheds would be of great use, or to make the site of a dung- 
hill on the north side of a wall; the floor on which the dung is 
heaped should, if possible, be paved with flat stones, and there 
should be a little inclination from each side toward the centre, in 
which there should bedrains, connected with a small well, furnished 
with a pump, by which any fluid matter may be collected for the use 
of the land."t 

A shaded situation is unquestionably best; and if the dung can 
be well covered under vacant sheds, the practice may be good. But 
to build sheds for storing dung, or pave bottoms, dig wells, and 
form cement for the bottoms and sides of thein, in the usual way, 
and make pumps, &c. is entirely inconsistent with the economy of 
farming. No profit derived from it will remunerate the expense; 
especially as the dung may be quite as well, and perhaps better 
saved, in the simple manner that has been before pointed out. /if 
gentlemen wish to instruct the common farmer, they should com- 
mence by introducing the utmost possible economy in every depart- 
ment of agriculture. If this be done, it will soon be found that the 
common farmer, (at least in this country,) is capable of exercising 
his reason, (and that judiciously too,) on subjects with which his 
interest is connected. It is the enormous and useless expense that 
is but too generally attached to gentlemen farming, which causes 
common farmers to reject what gentlemen propose. These men 
are not, as too many suppose, divested of understanding; on the 
contrary, they show their good sense by not giving into practices 
that would infallibly ruin them, unless they had become so wealthy 
as not to be seriously atiected by adopting them : put to proceed. 

Drying the dung as much as possible beftTre it is heaped, must 
cause much of the rich volatile matter to escape, and cost a good 
deal of labour. Opening and turning the dung over every time it. 
heats strongly, is a very expensive and destructive business ; and 
well calculated to scatter its best properties in the air. Notwith- 
standing, some gentlemen say that in drying dung nothing but the 
water escapes, the foetid smell of the gaseous effluvia arising from 
it determines the contrary. 

Farmers might make a valuable addition to their farm yard ma- 
nure, by digging a hole at a convenient distance from their kitchen, 
about three or four feet deep, and sufficiently wide to form a com- 
mon receptacle for the various matters originating in and about the 
house, extending a paved gutter from the kitchen to it, to conduct 
soap suds and other useless slops into it. When it becomes offen- 
sive, the offending matter should be covered widi earth. That which 
A JBll thrown up in digging the hole may be applied so long as it lasts. 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem, page 306. f Idem, page 307. 



112 

Care should be taken to prevent the water from without from run- 
ning into it. The receptacle may be hid from sight by planting an 
evergreen hedge around it, leaving an opening at the back for put- 
ting in and taking out the contents. 

The necessary may be placed by the side of the receptacle ; and 
every thing from it readily conveyed among the rest of the com- 
post ; provided the farmer is willing to convey the disagreeable but 
very valuable contents to his fields, and plough them under the 
soil ; or can hire others to do this for him. 

The effects produced by this very powerful compost, will be seen 
by his neighbours, and others may follow his laudable example, un- 
til the beneficial practice of using night soil for manure, be brought 
into as general use as it has been in other countries, where habit 
has rendered the use of this article familiar. 

If the yards be duly swept, and the valuable contents be put into 
the receptacle, the health of the family will be promoted, and visi- 
ters will not be annoyed by d\e stench arising from privies, and 
stagnant gutters, too seldom, if ever, cleaned out. 







CHAPTER IX. 

Manures not in general use pointed out. Vegetable substances should not be 
reduced to ashes when manure is the only object, and the substances can be 
applied without being burned The best mode of applying lime when sub- 
stances to be decomposed are ploughed under the soil. Sir H. Davy's theory 
of the indecomposable jiroperty of woody fibre considered ; also, what he 
and Mr. Young say of tanners' waste bark. The effects of water on vege- 
tation. Practical ')bser\ ation seems to determine, that wilh proper manage- 
ment the soil may be greatly enriched, by tlie depositions from the atmos- 
phere. On the interesting economy of the kidney bean, &c. How gypsum 
acts when seeds have been rolled in it previously to their being sown. 

As some manures which are not in general use will be found very 
profitable, where they can be readily procured on moderate terms, I 
will point them out, and make some observations on them. 

There is no part of an animal which does not furnish valuable 
manure. The parts that quickly decay are not so lasting, but more 
powerful. 

Bones, when reduced under a stone, similar to those used for 
grinding tanners' bark, are, when broken into pieces, not exceeding 
a small chesnut in size, an excellent and very lasting manure. Fifty 
or sixty bushels are applied to the acre. Much less would suffice 
if they were broken before the grease is boiled out of them for other 
purposes. Or if they were much finer ground, a great deal less 
would produce the same immediate effect. 

Horn shavings and turnings are still more powerful than bones 
which have been stripped of decomposable animal matter. Twenty 
bushels per acre of them, are commonly applied. 

Sheep trotters are said to be very valuable, and applied at the 
rate of forty bushels per acre. 

Damaged wool, and the offal trimming from sheep, are also used 
for manure, from ten to twenty hundred weight to the acre, in pro- 
portion as the quality may be more or less valuable. 

Woollen rags, cut into small pieces in a paper mill, have beea 
very successfully used at the rate of from fifteen to twenty hundred 
weight to the acre. 

Fish are sometimes caught in large quantities for manure. Twen- 
ty bushels to the acre have been used very successfully. Salted fish, 
after being damaged, have been also very profitably employed for 
this purpose. So has the brine from sound fish. 

Feathers are a valuable manure; when damaged in quantities, 
they may be profitably applied to this purpose. The farmer should 
have the feathers that are not used for more profitable purposes, put 
iato his receptacle. Also, the hair scalded from his hogs, &c. This, 

P 



114 

or hair taken from skins by tanners is valuable. The blood from 
animals that are killed on the farm, should also be put into the re- 
ceptacle, for it is a very rich manure. 

Furriers' clippings and curriers' shavings are valuable manure ; 
thirty bushels to the acre. The offals from the tan-yard and glue 
maker are also equally valuable. 

U seems probable that the clippings and chippings from shoe 
makers, saddlers, and others working in tanned leather would be 
valuable manure ; but might require some decomposition previously 
to being ploughed under the soil. 

The scum from the boilers of sugar bakers, consists of bullock's 
blood, and saccharine matter, consequently is a very rich manure. 
Fresh oyster or clam shells, when broken into pieces are a very 
valuable manure ; they would, however, be much more useful and 
powerful, if they were finely powdered. 

Where any kind of shellfish is plenty, and may be readily pro- 
cured, they will be found very valuable manure, if broken into pieces 
previous to their being ploughed under the soil. 

It is said that the corals, coralines and sponges, contain equal 
parts of decomposable animal matter and lime ; therefore, where 
they can be readily obtained, they may be advantageously used for 
manure. 

Spoiled salted beef, pork, &c. may be formed into a compost with 
earth. When the latter has imbibed the principal part of the de- 
composable animal matter, the compost may be removed with as lit- 
tle or less offence than slaughterhouse dung. The brine of sound 
beef, pork, &c. is also valuable manure.* 

When domesticated animals die, it is the common practice to let 
them rot above the ground. This is sure to annoy the neighbour- 
hood. If the stench from the animal be too distant to contaminate 
the air, dogs are fond of carrion, and after they have gorged them- 
selves with it, become insufferable inmates to the families to which 
they belong. The dead animal should be laid on a thick layer of 
earth, and well covered with the same material. After the cover- 
ing has sunk in, and the earth has absorbed the animal matter, the 
compost will not be more offensive than slaughterhouse dung, pro- 
vided a sufficiency of earth has been employed. If such offensive 
manures be removed regularly, before the season renders them very 
noxious, the injurious prejudice against working among them will 
cease. They should be hauled to the field during winter, and 
ploughed under so soon as frost will permit. The same should also 
be done when night soil is used. 

Urine is a very valuable manure, and may be readily saved on 
farms by putting it into the common receptacle. 

* The product of wheat has been considerably increased by soaking the seed 
in fish brine, and rolling it previously to sowing, in dry unleached ashes. The 
same effect is to be expected from the brine from meat, in proportion to the 
animal matter contained in it. Brine made of salt, and used in the same way, 
has been also found to increase the crops of small grain and prevent smut. 



115 

The manure from privies is very powerful. It is said that five 
loads to the acre have restored exhausted soils ; and that two loads 
per acre, annually applied, has excited and maintained luxuriant 
vegetation. The interest of agriculture would be greatly promoted 
by contriving cheap and simple means of saving the manure in 
cities, villages, and on farms, and of conveying it to the soil with 
the least possible ottence. Quick lime, or other septic substances, 
should not be employed to effect the ready removal of it. 

Sir H. Davy says, " The Chinese, who have more practical 
knowledge of the use and application of manures, than any other 
people, mix their night soil with one-third of its weight of a fat marl, 
make it into cakes, and dry it by exposure to the sun. Those cakes, 
we are informed by the French Missionaries, have no disagreeable 
smell, and form a common article of commerce in the empire." 
" The earth, by its absorbent powers, probably prevents to a certain 
extent, the action of the moisture on the dung, and likewise de- 
fends it from the effects of air."* 

The experiment seems to be well worth trial ; especially as there 
appears to be but little, if any difficulty in getting the busines done. 
It offers an additional profit to those who clean out necessaries, to 
be obtained with quite as little, or perhaps less exposure to offence. 

How the Chinese save their night soil is unknown to me. If as 
much moisture be mixed with it as obtains in our privies, much more 
marl must be used by them. 

A pure compact clay will be found better for this purpose than 
a calcareous marl, f as the latter decomposes animal and vegetable 
matters. 

The agricultural societies organized in our cities, might have this 
experiment made with but little trouble or expense. To prevent 
error, some active intelligent member should, in the beginning, su- 
perintend the process. 

Pigeon dung is a very powerful manure ; so is that from farm 
yard poultry. However, neither the dung nor the fowl will ever 
pay the farmer one-tenth part of the money they cost him, if he suf- 
fers them to pillage his fields and mow in the usual way. They 
should be confined when damage may be expected from them in the 
fields, and the grain in the mows should be kept closely covered 
with straw. 

If this, however, be done, and the poultry are not taught to roost 
regularly in houses provided for them, but little manure will be 
gathered. Such houses cost but little, if utility in place of parade 
governs the practice of the cultivator! 

In some places, much valuable manure may be gathered where 
wild birds roost at night. 

• See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 296. 

f Clay witliout any calcareous matter in it, is sometimes improperly called 
marl. 

+ In England, what is called a complete establishment for poultry, often costs 
more money than a valuable farm woidd cost in many parts of this co\mtry. 



116 

Street dirt is an assemblage of substances; some of which are 
mechanical, others enricliing, and some stimulating. When too 
large a proportion of the first does not prevail, it is a very valuable 
manure. 

Sea, river, and pond weeds, from fifteen to twenty loads to the 
acre, have been used with success. 

The weeds growing in our fields may be very profitably used, pro- 
vided they be ploughed under the soil not less than five inches deep, 
and a cultivation calculated to keep them there be pursued. 

When potatoes, or any other root which can only be gathered by 
turning up the soil, is planted, the use of weeds should be avoided, 
unless the soil be sufficiently deep to admit the practice of trench 
ploughing. 

Straw, and some other vegetable substances, may be ploughed 
under the soil in tolerable quantities when very wet : but as it is 
difficult under any other circumstances than a partial decomposi- 
tion, to plough under a sufficiency of this weak manure, to do any 
very material good to the crops, it is much better to lose some part 
of it by fermentation, than to injure the round of crops, and grasses 
following them. Cornstalks, and other bodies equally hard, will 
require more decomposition tlian straw, before they can be readily 
ploughed under the soil in sufficient quantities to answer any very 
valuable purpose. Where cattle are plenty, every vegetable sub- 
stance that can be profitably used for litter, should be applied to 
that purpose, as the rich juices in the cattle yard will increase their 
value many fold. 

Leaves, when raked up through the woods, in the fall and win- 
ter, and suffered to remain under the shade of the trees until a 
great heat takes place in them, become very compact ; and but 
very partially decomposed. In this state, they may be ploughed 
under the soil, and are a valuable manure. 

If the ground, however, be annually raked, the grasses will grow, 
the soil will become hard, and the timber be eventually destroyed, 
as are the trees in our orchards, when the grasses are suffered to 
take possession of the grounds. Therefore the woods should be 
laid out so, that one-third part of them only be raked in the course 
of three years. By this means, the grasses will be kept under, 
and nature will keep the soil open and mellow for the roots of the 
trees, by the fermentation of the leaves, and other substances co- 
vered by them. The loss of the leaves from this practice will not 
be anv thing like so great as at first sight appears; for the econo- 
my of nature is perfect: consequently, the fall of the leaves of the 
last year is preserved by her, to form a compact covering over those 
that had fallen before. This not only prevents the growth of the 
gras^ses, but also much evaporation from the fermentation of the 
animal and vegetable matters underneath them. 

It has been confidently asserted, that stone coal is an excellent 
manure ; that it has succeeded both in Europe and this country : 



117 

therefore, I am disposed to believe, under favourable circumstances, 
it may be so. 

I have tried it here by top dressing, without any perceptible 
effect, on corn, wheat, red clover, and the spear grasses, although 
the coal was pounded quite fine, and sifted. This may have hap- 
pened in consequence of the soil being impregnated with some of 
the properties of the coal, as it frequently appears near the surface 
throughout the whole neighbourhood : or it might have succeeded, 
if it had been ploughed under the soil. There is also a great dif- 
ference in coal ; that used by me abounded in sulphur and bitu- 
men, and burned freely. 

The ashes from stone coal have been extensively used for manure 
at from forty to fifty bushels to the acre. So has soot from the same 
substance, at from twenty-five to forty bushels to the acre ; like- 
wise the ashes and soot from wood. Too little care is taken of 
,soot in this country. The farmer may have that from his own 
chimneys put into the receptacle. 

Little is practically known of peat in this country; but the ashes 
from it are much used in England for manure. Burning is, how- 
ever, a destructive practice, and should be avoided whenever it 
can be done. It is much better to expose the peat to the influence 
of the atmosphere, until it can be ploughed under the soil. 

The great value of chip manure from our wood yards, when it is 
but very partially decomposed, should teach us the great impro- 
priety of reducing vegetable substances to ashes, when manure is 
the only object, and when they may be applied without burning. 
If these chips were reduced by fire, previously to their being ap- 
plied, the comparative value of them would be trivial indeed. The 
cause of this is evident: when they are ploughed under the soil, 
and a cultivation calculated to keep them there is pursued, fermen- 
tation and decomposition are promoted, and gradually spread all 
their exciting and enriching influence through the grounds, with 
the least possible loss ; and ashes stimulate, but do not enrich the 
soil. 

Sir H. Davy says, •' Peat earth, of certain consistence and com- 
position, is an excellent manure, but there are some varieties of 
peat, which contain so large a quantity of ferruginous matter, as to 
be absolutely poisonous to plants."* 

This can only happen when the peat is applied in too large quan- 
tities; as Sir H. and many other gentlemen have shown, that fer- 
ruginous matter is an excellent manure. It is true, that he rather 
seems disposed to confine the usefulness of it to calcareous soils; 
in which, he says, it unites with the lime, and gypsum is formed. 

Agreeably to this theory, the peats which contain large quanti- 
ties of ferruginous matter, may be rendered very valuable manure, 
by mixing them with fresh slaked lime, previously to their being 
applied: but as economy is important in the practice of farming it 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 6. 



118 

would be far better to spread the lime first over the lay, and after 
this spread the peat, and turn the whole under. This will place 
the lime on and among the peat. If the ground be ploughed a 
little deeper when the next round of crops takes place, the lime 
will be brought to the surface of the soil. This practice would be 
beneficial when peat of any sort, or hard vegetable sustances of any 
kind, are applied for manure. 

Sir H. says, " Inert peaty matter is a substance of the same kind, 
(alluding to tanners' spent bark.) It will remain for years exposed 
to water and air, without undergoing change, and in this state 
yields little or no nourishment for plants.'** Dr. Darwin recom- 
mends heaping peat either with or without lime, in order to expe- 
dite the decomposition of it. 

This, with other accounts we have of the properties of this vege- 
tation, induces me to believe, that Sir H. may be as mistaken about 
peat, as he evidently is, respecting woody fibre; which, he says, 
*• will not ferment, unless some substance be mixed with it, which 
acts the same part as mucilage, sugar, and extractive or albumi- 
nous matters, with which it is usually associated in herbs and suc- 
culent vegetables."! Beside the exciting causes here briefly enu- 
merated by this gentleman, there are others which have been men- 
tioned by him :| some of these may not exist in some trees, and 
but little of them in others. Still, there is in every tree a suffi- 
ciency to predispose the wood to fermentation, when it is placed 
in situations favouring the process. The simple post, mentioned 
before, determines this;§ so does the decomposition of the chips 
in our wood yards, but more especially the innumerable trees that 
time, tornadoes, &c. have prostrated in our forests. 

Here we see, without being misled by erroneous theories, the 
processes of fermentation and decomposition, in all their different 
stages, as well as on the different plants which may claim our at- 
tention: but as woody fibre is the subject now under consideration, 
and the decomposition of it has been described, nothing more is 
necessary to be added, than that some woods rot very rapidly, 
others, more slowly, and some, either from a deficiency of those 
principles which favour fermentation, or other causes, decay so 
slowly, that they are like charcoal, improperly termed by some 
indestructible. Howevei, the most durable woods are decom- 
posed by time; and a shaded situation, where rain has access, 
greatly promotes the process. 

This is best seen in the back-woods, where various causes in- 
duce the settlers to abandon a clearing soon after it has been com- 
menced. In that case, the brush heaps sink soonest into decay. 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 285, 

t Ibid. Here Sir H. seems to insinuate, that these matters are confined to 
herbs and succulent veg-etables ; than which nothing can be more erroneous. 

t Idem, page 73. 

§ It should be recollected, that posts are commonly formed of the most 
durable and well seasoned wood the farmer can readily get. 



119 

The heaps of logs, from their compact form, and being kept conti- 
nually more or less damp, by rain and shade, rot much sooner than 
many would readily imagine, unless they happen to be formed of 
very durable wood. 

If the philosopher, who wishes to study nature, would, in place 
of making a tour of Europe, where art has nearly obliterated her 
features, spend half the time and money in the interior of the Uni- 
ted States, where the line of cultivation separates pure nature from 
art, he would not only see nature as she is, but by comparing her 
perfect system of economy with what art had done in the older 
settlements of Europe, and what it was now doing in America, 
more especially in the vicinity of the wilds where nature presides, 
he would be far better prepared to write on any subject connected 
with her economy in the different processes on which vegetation 
depends. 

As all our ideas arise, either directly or indirectly, from our 
senses, the more we are exercised on the subjects we wish to under- 
stand, the better we shall become acquainted with them. 

An expert and intelligent artist, who has never seen nature as 
she really is, may draw an interesting likeness of her. It, however, 
vanishes when the original appears. 

It is said that tanners' waste bark, when completely putrefied, 
affords an excellent manure ; and that one load of it is equal to two 
of dung. This seems to be rating it highly; however, it may im- 
bibe some animal matter from the hides. If so, it appears that it 
should be much sooner used, especially as the vegetable matter 
must also suffer considerable loss by lying so long. 

It is also said, that if this manure be intended for grass, it ought 
to be spread in the latter part of September, that the winter's rains 
may wash it into the grounds; for if applied in the spring it will 
burn the grass. But if applied for wheat, it should be spread im- 
mediately before the last ploughing, to come in contact with the 
early roots of the plants.* It would, however, seem that but little 
is practically known of it. Mr. Young says, "spent bark seemed 
rather to injure vegetation;"! he attributes this to the astringent 
matter that it contains. Sir H. Davy says, "it is freed from soluble 
substances in the tan pit; and if injurious to vegetation, the effect 
is probably owing to its agency upon water, or mechanical effects ;" 
and that it is " an inert substance, and remains for years exposed 
to water and air without undergoing changes."! 

These opposing opinions furnish one of the numberless instances 
in which gentlemen, whose talents are highly and justly esteemed, 
advance opposite theories; and clearly determine that nature and 
reason should be consulted by the farmer, before any practice be 

• It would appear much more likely to injure the tender roots of the wheat . 
Practice, however, in the back-woods, clearly determines that it will injure 
neither, unless the quantity be too great. 

t See Sir H. Davy's Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 285. + Ibid. 



120 

admitted or condemned by him. More especially as neither of 
those gentlemen is right. 

As far the greater part of the astringent matter contained in the 
bark is expended in the tan pit, that principle cannot injure vege- 
tation, unless too great a quantity of spent bark be applied. 

Where tanning is judiciously conducted, and bark sells high, all 
the astringent matter that can be profitably used is extracted. Still, 
when that matter becomes too inconsiderable to pay the expense 
of attending the further use of it, the process ceases, and leaves the 
remainder in the water and in the bark. 

As the principles which promote fermentation have been ex- 
tracted to a considerable extent in the pit, tanners' spent bark can- 
not ferment so freely as bark from which none of those principles 
have been extracted, unless the animal matter imbibed from the 
hides may make up this deficiency; which seems to be a doubtful 
question. Therefore, where lime can be had on moderate terms, it 
may be brought much sooner into active use, by the application of 
lime in the way that has been recommended for using it with peat. 

Sometime after trees are girdled, the bark begins to fall and the 
process goes on gradually. That from the bodies or trunks, which 
constitutes a considerable part of the whole, generally rests in the 
forks formed by the roots. Where bad cultivation prevails consi- 
derable quantities of it are often covered with the soil. In this 
state it appears to decompose freely ; but if the quantity happen to 
be too considerable, vegetation languishes and looks sallow. The 
same, however, occurs, where any otlier vegetation that is but par- 
tially decayed, accumulates in excess. 

It seems to be worth trying whether the liquid from the tan pits 
would not promote vegetation, after it was no longer useful for 
tanning. 

But few rabbits are kept in this country. However, as their dung 
is very valuable, it should be saved. 

Rape cake is also highly esteemed, and has been very success- 
fully used for manure in England. 

Linseed cake is said to be an excellent manure, but unless it has 
been damaged it is generally too costly to be applied to that pur- 
pose. 

Malt dust is also said to be a good manure. 

In fact the offals of almost every mechanical employment furnish 
materials for valuable manure. Even shavings, sawdust, and the 
chips and turnings from those working in wood. Therefore, it 
would be very tedious to enumerate the whole of them. Enough 
has been said to show that many manures, scarcely ever used in 
this country, are exceedingly valuable, and that much more atten- 
tion should be given to them. 

That water is a powerful promoter of vegetation is every where 
seen ; but until I removed to this elevated situation, I had not so 
clearly seen the immense powers contained in simple rain water to 
effect that purpose. 



121 

The passing clouds more frequently water the soil ; consequently 
grass abounds much more than in the same latitude where the 
grounds lie much lower. 

Our summers are much cooler and shorter than in the same line 
of latitude below us. Yet Indian corn, when planted in time, and 
properly cultivated, seems to be equally productive. To that crop 
moisture appears to compensate for a deficiency in heat. Other 
spring crops, on equal soils, appear to excel those below us. The 
same may be said of potatoes and turnips. I have grown the latter 
here without manure, and on rough grounds, not well cultivated, 
that weighed eight pounds. 

Water is an important agent in promoting the fermentation and 
decomposition of animal and vegetable substances; and its fluidity 
is well calculated to convey the nutriment arising therefrom to the 
roots of the plants. It also constitutes a considerable portion of 
the bodies of plants, and as it has been before observed, is capable 
of dissolving most natural bodies, and also of imbibing and con- 
veying their properties. Water parts with some substances pre- 
viously to its descent in rain. Still, there is great reason to believe 
that it either retains, or gathers in its descent, enriching as well as 
fertilizing principles ; as it soon becomes putrid in vessels which 
do not appear to communicate any of the causes of putridity to it. 

Notwithstanding the numerous advantages derived from water, 
a superabundance of it, joined with a deficiency of heat, retards 
fermentation, and vegetation languishes and looks sallow, unless 
proper division has been made to carry off the excess. These 
eflfects are most pre-eminently seen in grain fields, especially in 
those of wheat sown in the fall where proper water furrowing has 
not been introduced. 

The growth of the grasses is also considerably retarded from the 
same cause, but they are seldom very materially injured in this way, 
unless where the water becomes stagnant. If this occur, and very 
warm weather succeed, even grass may be greatly injured, and is 
sometimes ruined by a superabundance of putrefaction. If this be 
kept up by permanent spouts or springs, no valuable vegetation can 
exist ; except near to the head or fountain cf the springs, whe/e it 
is generally luxuriant, and will often continue to grow through the 
winter, when vegetation is every where else completely locked up 
by the frost. It seems that the water passes of too soon near the 
spring to acquire sufficient putridity to injure the grasses. 

This should teach the farmer the great impropriety of cultivating 
wet grounds, until he has properly drained them, unless ridging 
and water furrowing them in the way that will be hereafter des- 
cribed will answer the same purpose. 

However, where the grounds are free from spouts or springs, 
this supposed excess of moisture, which cultivators who farm in 
every clime and soil alike consider a great disadvantage, may 
with proper management be turned to certain profit, it is not 
very difficult to make provision to run off an excess of water from 

Q 



122 

rain; but where enough of it is wanting, it cannot be introduced 
in suflScient quantities for agricultural purposes, but by an expense 
entirely inconsistent with the economy of farming. 

Hence it is that the grasses, and cultivated crops, in climates 
subjected to what is too generally considered a superabundance of 
moisture, are, when properly ordered, green and luxuriant, while 
those growing on lands which are much more highly esteemed are 
parclied with drought. 

Farmers who have exercised too little observation, and of con- 
sequence, as was before observed, farm in every clime alike, say, 
those dripping climates are excellent for grass, but very unfit for 
grain. It may, however, be laid down as a maxim in farming, that 
where real good grasses abound, grain will also abound, if a proper 
system of husbandry be pursued. 

England is a northerly and moist climate. Still, grain prospers 
there, and would prosper as well, perhaps better, in Ireland, if as 
good a cultivation prevailed. 

But it should be recollected, that the well instructed British 
agriculturist does not expect good crops of grain from an exhausted 
soil, unless it has been previously well manured, and if the soil 
requires it, laid dry; not only by proper water furrowing, but by 
laborious draining also, if that should be considered necessary. 

It is generally believed that the atmosphere is laden with sub- 
stances which greatly promote vegetation, and also enrich the soil; 
particularly when the latter is well covered with plants calculated 
to gather and shield those depositions from the improper action of 
the sun and air. Still, the great importance of gathering and se- 
curing them is not sufficiently appreciated; or a cultivation and 
management immediately opposed to it would not so generally 
prevail. 

Their value is demonstrable, if it be granted, that all the improve- 
ment made in any soil with its own produce alone, must proceed 
from the enriching and fertilizing principles derived from the 
atmosphere ; especially if the grain and roots grown on the farm 
be principally sold, and the principal dependence for enriching it, 
rest on feeding the hay and other fodder to cattle on thfe place, and 
using the straw and offal vegetation for litter. 

Under circumstances though not exactly alike, but in substance 
the same, an improvement of nearly fourfold was made, in the 
course of five years, on a farm with which I was, at the time this 
was doing, intimately acquainted, and witnessed the progress of the 
improvement. It was determined, by estimating the value of the 
different crops ; and the soil appeared to me to b^e fully as much, if 
not more, improved, during this time, than the crops had been. 
Some extraneous assistance was had recourse to ; but more manure 
remained on the farm unapplied when this estimate was made than 
equalled the value of the foreign aid introduced by the cultivator. 

The farm contained about one hundred and six acres of ground, 
of which about fifteen acres were thinly set woodland. The leaves 



123 

from the woods were generally, but not always, U3ed for litter. 
However, the loss to the soil from the sale of nearly all the grain 
and roots, must have very greatly exceeded the advantage derived 
from the leaves, although their value was not deemed inconsiderable. 
Now if this improvement did not arise from the enriching princi- 
ples existing in the atmosphere, it is difficult to devise how it could 
nave happened. 

Although the hay, grass, straw, &c. were made into better ma- 
nure than it is probable these substances afforded in their native 
state, the cattle which were fed on the hay, grass, corn fodder, &c. 
were bought in lean, and sold out to the butcher fat. They of con- 
sequence took away with them more enriching matter than they 
brought; and all the enriching matter left by them in the dung, was 
the produce of the food eaten by them. But it should be observed 
that ,tlje fields which were not under cultivation were in grass, and 
so managed, that they derived every advantage which might be ra- 
tionally expected from the rich matters floating in the atmosphere. 
The dung was carefully gathered and ploughed under the soil, pre- 
vious to any material waste from fermentation. However, the cul- 
tivation of the crops was too seldom calculated to save it from use- 
less waste. 

I have mentioned before, that as maize is large, the economy of 
it is more readily observed than that of many other plants, and that 
it may be clearly seen that this plant gathers much of the nutri- 
ment by which its ears are formed and matured from the atmos- 
phere. 

The economy of the kidney bean, together with that of all the 
plants, which penetrate the soil, with the seed from which they ve- 
getate attached to the extremities of their stems or plume, demon- 
strates, that nature has ordered or contrived plants so, that they 
have the power to convey the nutritive matter found in contact with 
their tops, throughout their whole general system, equally as well 
as that imbibed by their roots. This very interesting part of the 
economy of nature has also been very ingeniously determined by 
art, as by planting the tops of some kinds of trees in the ground, 
and elevating their roots in the air, the buds which usually form 
leaves become roots ; and those which when in the ground, formed 
roots or radicals, were changed into leaves, flowers, &.c. 

The kidney bean, when it comes up through the soil, brings the 
seed with it. The bean, in the process of vegetation, is split length- 
wise The colour of it is but little changed, and but little of the 
nutritious matter seems to have been exhausted previously to its 
appearance above the soil. After this, the two sides separate wider 
apart, and seem to flatten more or less daily, until they are formed 
into leaves; the colour of them gradually growing greener, in 
proportion as the nutriment contained in them is exhausted by the 
infant plant. My examination of the leaves formed by the bean, 
has unfortunately been carried no further. Therefore I do nut 



124 

know that these leaves grow as large, and are as perfectly formed 
as the other leaves of the plant. 

Dr. Darwin says, "The seed lobes of this plant are converted in- 
to leaves, and perform the office of lungs." But he is certainly 
mistaken in saying, "they have given up beneath the soil the nutri- 
ment which they previously contained."* This is a very gradual 
and a highly important process of nature, whether it be performed 
either above or within the soil. In the case of the kidney bean it 
is, however, evident that this process is principally performed above 
ground. 

The thinning and suckering of maize, has ever appeared to me to 
be a very important part of the proper management of that crop. 
Therefore, I have given much personal attention to both; and have 
pulled up plants from twelve to fifteen inches high, with a part of 
the seed still attached to the root: but in common it is decayed be- 
fore the plants are so large. 

However, so far as my observation has extended, it would seem, 
that the fermentation and decomposition of seed greatly depend 
on the exciting causes found in contact with it. This appears to 
be still more probable, as we all may see that seed vegetate very 
precariously when sown in an old worn out soil : also, that on such 
soils the seed of those grasses which require much nutriment, re- 
main torpid until the grounds are enriched. 

Those circumstances seem to show, how it happens that plants 
from seeds coated with gypsum, previously to their being sown on 
a thin soil, are so much more luxuriant than those sown on the same 
description of soil, without being covered with that substance. 

The gypsum i.astens the decomposition not only of the richer 
matters stored up in the seed, but also the outside covering of it 
wnichisless nutritive, and of consequence sinks lower into decay. 
It would appear, however, that neither of these substances is soon 
enough decomposed by the feeble fermentation which occurs in a 
thin soil. Therefore the plant growing from seed thickly coated 
with gypsum, is well supplied with the nutriment which nature has 
prepared for its support during its infant state. This causes the 
organization of its system to be much more perfect and robust ;t and 
of consequence much better calculated to perform the functions of 
life, than a plant which, from a slow and scanty supply of the same 
kind of nutritious matter, becomes debilitated, and of course much 
more imperfect in the organization of its system ; therefore has not 
sufficientr strength or power to extend its roots deep and wide, in 
search of the thinly scattered nutriment aftbrded by a poor soil. As 
the tops of plants thus circumstanced are equally as much debili- 
tated, and as imperrectly organized, as are their roots, but little nu- 
triment can be gathered from the atmosphere by them. 

• See his Phytol. page 23. 

■\ No question but the gypsum with which the seed is coated acts powerfully 
on the animal and vegetable matters found in contact with it, and that this, like 
leaven, spreads fermentation. 



125 

Here again we see the close analogy which exists between plants 
and animals. If a pig or a calf be weaned while it is youno-, or can 
obtain but a scanty supply of the nutriment provided for its early 
support, and the husbandman does not supply this defect by proper 
nutritious food, we observe that the animal becomes meager, feeble, 
mangy, pot-gutted, inactive, and its hair is long, dead, and sha"-o-y . 
In fact the organization of its whole system commonly becomes de- 
bilitated and deranged. It also seldom happens that an animal 
which has been thus neglected and stunted, can ever be so much 
restored as to attain the same perfection as those that have been 
well provided for during their infancy. 

|Tn the fall of 1814, I turned under a soil thinly set with native 
gr^, principally white clover; but as it has been my lot to follow 
perpetual ploughers, or rather scratchers of the soil, it was thicklv 
set with brambles and sprouts from the roots of the girdled timber. 
The soil had been much exhausted : it had been, however, long 
enough abandoned by the man who had destroyed the timber, and 
ruined the soil, to be covered by nature with the vegetation above 
described. Early in the ensuing spring, wheat was sown on the lay. 
This was covered by the tined harrow, and red clover seed sown on 
it. The wheat plants generally looked weakly, as soon as they 
penetrated the soil, and in this state they continued, until the crop 
Avas matured. It would appear that the energy of the plants was 
not suflBcient to penetrate the slowly decaying sod formed by an 
impoverished soil, in time to obtain a tolerable supply of nutriment 
from it. 

The crop was so scanty that it determined me to procure ashes to 
dress another field of the same description of soil, and exactly in 
the same condition, which I had resolved to lay down in red clover, 
by the same mode of management. It, however, so happened that 
but few ashes could be saved, and these were more or less injured 
by rain. They were spread over about half the field, but so thinly 
that little perceptible good was expected from them. This induced 
me to coat the whole of the seed with as much very finely pow- 
dered gypsum as would adhere to it. The plants, on their first ap- 
pearance, looked healthy and vigorous, as well where the ashes had 
not, as where they had been spread, and so ihey continued to do. 
I am now reaping the field, which, from first to last, has caused 
much surprise to all my neighbours, who knew the grounds, and how 
much they had been exhausted; especially those who had examined 
the product of the first mentioned field. I believe the produce of 
the present field cannot be estimated per acre, at less than double 
that of the former one; although the soil, cultivation, and condition 
of both were exactly the same ; except that no gypsum was employ, 
ed in the former instance. The crops of spring wheat were gene- 
rally quite as good, if not better, last year, than they now are. I 
will conclude my book on vegetation and manures by observino-, that 
the manures arising from the tops and roots of the grasses ploughed 
under the soil, are so closely connected with cultivation, that the 



126 

best modes of obtaining them, will naturally occur in a description 
of that cultivation best calculated to gather, apply, and preserve 
them from waste. 

In this description, which will appear in my next book, it will, 
I trust, be clearly seen, that incalculable advantages may be obtain- 
ed, from the proper application of the roots and tops of the grasses 
for manure ; that they may be so applied and managed as to pro- 
duce at least double the advantage, both to the crops and the soil, 
that has been obtained from them by the too general mode of 
management. Also that the grasses in the hands of a judicious 
cultivator are nature's certain restorative ; the only rational 
means by which the farmer will be enabled to restore exhausted 
soils, and keep them with that part of their own produce alonef 
which he may readily spare, constantly as well stored with decay- 
ing animal and vegetable matter, as they were when subjected to 
the simple but wise economy of nature alone. Likewise that an 
immense loss in the tops and roots of the grasses, and also in farm 
yard manure, as well as in the fertilizing principles floating in the 
atmosphere, naturally arises from the present too general mode of 
management, both in the application, and cultivation after they 
have been applied. And that, by a proper system of husbandry, 
these losses may be readily avoided, and the value of the crops 
greatly increased ; the soil enriched, in place of being exhausted, 
and far better prepared for succeeding crops, with mucn less labour 
and expense than generally occur in the usual way. 

After this has been done, if the reader will sum up the various 
losses in manure, that naturally arise from the present too general 
mode of gathering and managing of it, and also from an injudicious 
and irrational cultivation, he will certainly find them excessively 
great. 

When calculations are made on principles that cannot be cer- 
tainly established, they will not be correct. Still, it seems probable, 
from what has been generally advanced, and also, from what hap- 
pened on the farm mentioned above, that if the immense sums of 
money or labour expended in the useless and destructive attempts 
to make animal and vegetable matter a better food for plants, also 
in a laborious and injurious cultivation, were spent in procuring 
the litter, and saving the dung, which is now too generally wasted, 
that the produce of the United States would be at least doubled in 
the course of five years; without estimating the aid which may be 
derived, during that time, from the increased agricultural capital, 
and population, that is to be expected from the great influx of 
foreigners, or in fact any other aid, than that of proper management. 



BOOK 11. 
ON CULTIVATION. 



130 

exhausting crops annually on the same ground, without the aid of 
manure, although his soil seems to have been thin. 

Sir H. Davy says, " Jethro Tull, in 1733, advanced the opinion, 
that minute earthy particles supplied the whole nourishment of the 
whole vegetable world ; that air and water were chiefly useful in 
producing these particles from the land."* If Sir H. had quoted 
the words of this truly great, but very mistaken agriculturist, the 
question would have been determined. Some years have elapsed 
sinice I read Mr. TuU's book on agriculture. If my memory be cor- 
rect, he attaches more consequence to the depositions from the at- 
mosphere than Sir H. seems to imagine; and appeared to believe 
they were conveyed to the soil by the dews. However, Mr. TuU's 
practice alone is sufficient to determine, that vegetation is greatly 
promoted by finely dividing the soil ; particularly when the culti- 
vation is extended to the growing crops. The practice of ages 
clearly shows, that much more is to be expected from a naked fol- 
low than too many advocates for fallow crops seem to believe. Still, 
if Mr. Tull had lived until he had divided the soil sufficiently often 
to have extracted the animal and vegetable matter that the undi- 
vided clods contained ; also, to have decomposed the hard vegetable 
substances which are always more or less seen, in greater or smaller 
quantities, in all soils; his opinion respecting enriching manures 
would have been greatly altered ; as was that of Mr. Uuhamel, a 
distinguished agriculturist of the same school, but who lived long 
enough to see the fallacy of this inconsiderate theory, and also to 
abandon it. 

Having candidly stated every advantage that seems to be deri- 
ved from a naked fallow, I will enumerate the very serious disad- 
vantages and injurious consequences arising therefrom. 

It is an expensive practice. First, the loss of one full year's 
rent of the soil. Secondly, it must be frequently ploughed, har- 
rowed, and rolled. After this, it often happens that much manual 
labour is necessary to break the clods, especially when they are 
firmly bound together with the roots of the grasses and weeds. 
'I'hese are pushed about by the plough, dragged by the harrow, an(W 
sunk into the soil by the roller, but not sufficiently separated by* 
any of them. The remains of them, together with the more finely 
divided grasses and weeds, are dragged up into heaps by the har- 
row throughout the whole field. These are raked up into larger 
heaps and burned, by some cultivators. Others suiFer them to re- 
main, and when the seed is sown, the harrow, by dragging the heaps, 
drags up much of the seed with them ; and vegetation is destroyed 
wherever they may happen to lie. In either case, a great waste ol 
vegetable matter takes place; for when it is not burned, its best 
poperties are exhaled by the sun, or scattered in the air. Numbers 
of t-Aen, women, and children are sometimes seen in England break- 
ing th* hard matted clods into pieces, raking them up into heaps, 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pag« 14, 



131 

and burning this very valuable vegetation, which, without any ot 
this enormous waste of labour, might have been very profitably ap- 
plied to the growth of the crops, and improvement of the soil. Af- 
ter the utmost care has been taken to prepare a naked fallow in the 
usual way, a multitude of the roots and tops of the grasses and 
weeds remain so intimately mixed within the soil, that they will 
grow in sufficient numbers to do great injury to the crop : especially 
if the weather happen to be dripping during the process of cultiva- 
tion. In that case, the moisture preserves the vegetative powers 
of the grasses and weeds, and the crop is sure to be much injured 
by them. 

The seeds of the weeds are as often turned under as uppermost 
by the usual mode of cultivation : consequently, many of them do 
not vegetate during the process; and those that are not buried be- 
yond the power of germination, when the small grain is sown, will 
grow and injure the crop. If dung is applied for the small grain, 
it is generally spread previously to seeding, and turned under by a 
shallow furrow; of consequence, it produces a plentiful crop of 
weeds, for although the cookers of dung say that the fermentation 
of it destroys the vegetative property of seed, practice and obser- 
vation determine the contrary. 

In fact, if nature had not calculated seeds in general to withstand 
much more than the heat of a fermenting dunghill, the earth would 
long since have been stripped of vegetation ; particularly where 
ploughers and croppers reside. Like the locust in Egypt, they 
would soon destroy every green thing, if nature had not reserved 
seeds for ages unhurt, with which she carefully counteracts so much 
of the injury done by this class of farmers, as to prevent actual 
sterility from taking place in the grounds cultivated by them. 

Although it is granted, that a naked fallow prepares much food 
for plants, by finely dividing the soil, frequent ploughing and har- 
rowing are calculated to scatter much animal and vegetable matter 
in the air; especially while the soil is continually exposed to the 
injurious effects of the sun and air ; and unless the bad effects 
produced by this process be counteracted by excellent manage- 
ment in other respects, it will eventually ruin the soil. If this 
practice be pursued, under the best mode of management, that su- 
perior talents can devise, the improvement in the soil will be slow 
indeed, when compared with that which may be readily effected, 
by the practice of fallow crops properly ordered. It is also evi- 
dent, that in the latter case the grounds are profitably employed, 
while in the former they yield nothing: although the farmer is 
spending much money in the very laborious cultivation of them. 

No improvement made in agriculture has promoted the interest 
of it so extensively as the introduction of fallow crops. Yet it 
seems evident, that the various difterent modes which have been 
generally pursued in the cultivation of these crops, as well as in 
that of the cultivated crops following them, are by no means cal- 
culated to promote the product of either, or to enrich the soil, to 



130 

exhausting crops annually on the same ground, without the aid of 
manure, although his soil seems to have been thin. 

Sir H. Davy says, " Jethro Tull, in 173S, advanced the opinion, 
that minute earthy particles supplied the whole nourishment of the 
whole vegetable world ; that air and water were chiefly useful in 
producing these particles from the land."* If Sir H. had quoted 
the words of this truly great, but very mistaken agriculturist, the 
question would have been determined. Some years have elapsed 
sir^ce I read Mr. TuU's book on agriculture. If my memory be cor- 
rect, he attaches more consequence to the depositions from the at- 
mosphere than Sir H. seems to imagine; and appeared to believe 
tliey were conveyed to the soil by the dews. However, Mr. Tull's 
practice alone is sufficient to determine, that vegetation is greatly 
promoted by finely dividing the soil ; particularly when the culti- 
vation is extended to the growing crops. The practice of ages 
clearly shows, that much more is to be expected from a naked nil- 
low than too many advocates for fallow crops seem to believe. Still, 
if Mr. Tull had lived until he had divided the soil sufficiently often 
to have extracted the animal and vegetable matter that the undi- 
vided clods contained ; also, to have decomposed the hard vegetable 
substances which are always more or less seen, in greater or smaller 
quantities, in all soils; his opinion respecting enriching manures 
would have been greatly altered ; as was that of Mr. Uuhamel, a 
distinguished agriculturist of the same school, but who lived long 
enough to see the fallacy of this inconsiderate theory, and also to 
abandon it. 

Having candidly stated every advantage that seems to be deri- 
ved from a naked fallow, I will enumerate the very serious disad- 
vantages and injurious consequences arising therefrom. 

It is an expensive practice. First, the loss of one full year's 
rent of the soil. Secondly, it must be frequently ploughed, har- 
rowed, and rolled. After this, it often happens that much manual 
labour is necessary to break the clods, especially when they are 
firmly bound together with the roots of the grasses and weeds. 
'J'hese are pushed about by the plough, dragged by the harrow, and,,^ 
sunk into the soil by the roller, but not sufficiently separated bV^' 
any of them. The remains of them, together with the more finely- 
divided grasses and weeds, are dragged up into heaps by the har- 
row throughout the whole field. These are raked up into larger 
heaps and burned, by some cultivators. Others suffer them to re- 
main, and when the seed is sown, the harrow, by dragging the heaps, 
drags up much of the seed with them ; and vegetation is destroyed 
wherever they may happen to lie. In either case, a great waste oi 
vegetable matter takes place ; for when it is not burned, its best 
poperties are exhaled by the sun, or scattered in the air. Numbers 
of Men, women, and children are sometimes seen in England break- 
ing th» hard matted clods into pieces, raking them up into heaps, 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pag'e 14. 



131 

and burning this very valuable vegetation, which, without any ol 
this enormous waste of labour, might have been very profitably ap- 
plied to the growth of the crops, and improvement of the soil. Af- 
ter the utmost care has been taken to prepare a naked fallow in the 
usual way, a multitude of the roots and tops of the grasses and 
weeds remain so intimately mixed within the soil, that they will 
g;row in sufficient numbers to do great injury to the crop : especially 
if the weather happen to be dripping during the process of cultiva- 
tion. In that case, the moisture preserves the vegetative powers 
of the grasses and weeds, and the crop is sure to be much injured 
by them. 

The seeds of the weeds are as often turned under as uppermost 
by the usual mode of cultivation: consequently, many of them do 
not vegetate during the process; and those that are not buried be- 
yond the power of germination, when the small grain is sown, will 
grow and injure the crop. If dung is applied for the small grain, 
it is generally spread previously to seeding, and turned under by a 
shallow furrow; of consequence, it produces a plentiful crop of 
weeds, for although the cookers of dung say that the fermentation 
of it destroys the vegetative property of seed, practice and obser- 
vation determine the contrary. 

In fact, if nature had not calculated seeds in general to withstand 
much more than the heat of a fermenting dunghill, the earth would 
long since have been stripped of vegetation ; particularly where 
ploughers and croppers reside. Like the locust in Egypt, they 
would soon destroy every green thing, if nature had not reserved 
seeds for ages unhurt, with which she carefully counteracts so much 
of the injury done by this class of farmers, as to prevent actual 
sterility from taking place in the grounds cultivated by them. 

Although it is granted, that a naksd fallow prepares much food 
for plants, by finely dividing the soil, frequent ploughing and har- 
rowing are calculated to scatter much animal and vegetable matter 
in the air; especially while the soil is continually exposed to the 
injurious effects of the sun and air ; and unless the bad effects 
produced by this process be counteracted by excellent manage- 
ment in other respects, it will eventually ruin the soil. If this 
practice be pursued, under the best mode of management, that su- 
perior talents can devise, the improvement in the soil will be slow 
indeed, when compared with that which may be readily effected, 
by the practice of fallow crops properly ordered. It is also evi- 
dent, that in the latter case the grounds are profitably employed, 
while in the former they yield nothing: althoii}>;h the farmer is 
spending much money in the very laborious cultivation of them. 

No improvement made in agriculture has promoted the interest 
of it so extensively as the introduction of fallow crops. Yet it 
seems evident, that the various different modes which have been 
generally pursued in the cultivation of these crops, as well as in 
that of the cultivated crops following them, are by no means cal- 
culated to promote the product of either, or to enrich the soil, to 



lira . 

any thing like that extent, which might be readily effected with 
much less labour and expense, if a proper system of cultivation 
were pursued. If, however, distinct parts of the very numerous 
and discordant systems of cultivation be selected from the difterent 
practices that are commonly pursued by different cultivators, it 
appears that nothing is offered by me, which has not been more or 
less sanctioned by the actual practice of others. Therefore, the 
merit of my system of husbandry does not consist in overturning 
what the practice and observation of ages have introduced : but 
in uniting into one system such practices as are consistent with 
nature, reason, and common sense, rejecting those only that seem 
to be inconsistent with either. The undertaking is arduous, espe- 
cially when ventured upon by a plain practical farmer, who de- 
pends not on science, but on nature, reason, practice, and obser- 
vation. .In a work of this sort, errors are to be expected ; still, as 
these errors cannot be capital, but little injury is to be expected 
from them, before they may be corrected by others who are better 
informed. 
^Agriculture will never reach its zenith, until the value of grass 
lay's is sufficiently appreciated, and the cultivation of them much 
better understood. The value of a clover lay, when applied for 
wheat, is well known. Still, most farmers continue frequent 
mowing, or close pasturing, until the clover is nearly run out. 
This greatly impoverishes the lay, and unless the soil be rich, the 
wheat crop is light. The clover plant cannot vyithstand frequent 
cutting, even during the first season it is mown. , This causes the 
lateral roots of the plants to become weak, ariifmcapable of hold- 
ing the tap-roots in the ground ; and they are thrown out by the 
frosts of the ensuing winter and spring. Phe same happens if red 
clover be pastured, unless a well grown covering of the tops of 
the grass be preserved; especially to defend the roots and crown 
of the plant, from the frosts of the ensuing winter and spring. If 
this plant be thus defended, it will far better withstand, not only 
the frosts in the winter and spring, but also the injurious heat of 
the sun. 

Both red clover and speargrass lays are very justly esteemed, 
by many farmers, as the best preparation for a fallow crop of 
maize. Some, either to save labour, or from a just conviction that 
the value of the crop is also greatly increased, do not turn up the 
sod in the cultivation of the fallow plants. Too many of them, 
however, as well as other cultivators, believe the health and vigour 
of the plants are greatly promoted by harrowing over them while 
they are young. Some, also, use harrows with sharp cutting tines, 
for the purpose of cutting through the sod deeply, and as near to 
the stems of the plants as may be conveniently done, without cut- 
ting or tearing'up. These practices are certainly opposed to the 
economy of nature, and the enlightened reason of man. None of 
these gentlemen would wound, bruise, or mangle a young animal, 
to increase the health and vigour of it; neither would they rend 



133 

and tear the choice trees in their nurseries to make them grow bet 
ter; although less evil would arise from mangling them, as trees 
are calculated much better to withstand and outgrow this very 
manifest injury. The practice of mutilating the tops, and sepa- 
rating the roots of plants from their stems, for the express purpose 
of causing them to grow much more luxuriantly, is not confined to 
maize; potatoes, and other hardy plants, that are capable of with- 
standing this truly barbarian practice, are too often subjected to it. 

Although some farmers do not turn up the sod in the cultiva- 
tion of maize, all of them, so far as my observation extends, plough 
it up previously to seeding the small grain that follows this plant. 
This exposes the rich matter arising from the fermentation of the 
roots and tops of the grasses, and the dung also, if that has been 
jipplied, to a serious waste. It is exhaled by the sun, scattered in 
the winds, and washed away by the rains and melting snows. 
Fermentation, which is the main spring of vegetation, is checked. 
None of these evils happens when the small grain is put in by a 
superficial cultivation; as the rich fertilizing matter remains se- 
curely buried within the soil. This, nature applies, with the least 
possible loss, to the use of the cultivated crops, and the grasses 
following, and with the overplus she enriches the soil. The fer- 
mentation and decay of this enriching matter, more elfectuallv 
expands, and minutely divides, the soil, than can be done with the 
plough. The plough, harrow, and roller, with, too often, the addi- 
tion of very expensive manual labour, are capable of pulverising 
the soil to any desirable extent. After this has been done, it 
settles, and too often becomes impervious to the roots of the plants, 
unless the ground be so rich, that it is not materially affected by 
the loss of the animal and vegetable matter which always takes 
place, when the soil is cultivated in the usual way. 

It should, also, be recollected, that every crop which is sown 
broad cast, principally depends on the expanding force of fermen- 
tation, to keep the soil open and mellow, for the ready admission 
of the roots of the plants ; likewise that when the grain is filling, 
the plants require the most nutriment ; and that previously to 
this the soil is considerably consolidated by time, unless it has 
been kept open and mellow by the fermentation of the animal and 
vegetable matter contained in it, or consists principally of sand. 
In the latter case, the lack of animal and vegetable matters causes 
much injurious evaporation of moisture, This, if the season does 
not happen to be dripping, greatly reduces the product of the 
grounds. 



CHAFI EU XL 



Fall ploughing for a crop of maize considered. The injurious effects of 
turning up the sod and manure in the cultivation of a fallow crop explained. 
Also by turning it up for the small grain following that crop. Plants are 
greatly injured by cutting their roots in the usual mode of cultiyation. The 
advantages derived from a superficial cultivation of a fallow crop considered. 
The nutriment arising from weeds should be as carefully applied and pre- 
served as that from our favourite plants. Maize is tlie best fallow crop if the 
cultivator has the desti'uction of weeds especially in view. Potatoes may be 
justly ranked among the worst of crops to effect this purpose. 

If some extra labour done through the fall andwinter, (of but little 
consequence either pro or con) be excepted. Judge Peters' practice 
in the cultivation of fallow crops of maize grown on grass lays, is 
very similar to that of many other farmers, who cultivate this plant 
on a sod with the plough ; I therefore believe it will be very useful 
to make some remarks on his different modes of management, 
especially as he had the destruction of garlic and other hardy 
weeds particularly in view. It would also seem that a reference 
to a recorded practice is likely to be more impressive, than if I 
were to refer to the same practice as it is generally pursued. 

I will commence with the crop of maize grown by this gentleman 
in 1809. His management of it so far as it was proper, clearly 
confirms the practice recommended by me. Also as cleatly deter- 
mines the injurious consequences arising from turning up the sod, 
in the cultivation of the plants. 

He says, •' In the autumn of 1808 I ploughed my field from five to 
seven inches deep. The sod was tough, and the surface bound. I 
treated it as I have been accustomed to deal with similar soddy 
lays. I harrowed it frequently in the fall, and, in open weather, 
in the winter, to expose the garlic, and fill all the openings, admit- 
ting too great an influx of air. To close them and consolidate 
the mass, I rolled it well." 

Those who do not follow my practice in old lays newly broken 
up, object to fall ploughing ; because in the spring, after fall plough- 
ing, they cross plough, and turn up the sod with all its pests and 
adhesion. This I never do, but harrow it well and often. I marked 
out the field in squares for Indian corn, and planted it at the usual 
time, not disturbing the sod, except in a small part of the field, 
hereafter noticed ; the corn thus treated does not, at first, grow so 
vigorously as in the common way, but as soon as the roots have pe- 
netrated the rotting sod, and mixed with the putrefying vegetable 
substances, the plant is wonderfully rapid in its increase, and im- 



135 

provement in colour and vigour. When the corn requires plough- 
ing, the sod is completely decayed, and becomes a manure. " I 
have a confirmation of the usefulness of my practice of rotting the 
sod. In the spot so often ploughed, the old vegetation dried, and 
perished uselessly, and the Indian corn was strikingly inferior to 
that on the rest of the field."* 

When farm yard or other enriching manure is not applied for a 
crop of maize, fall ploughing, rolling, and harrowing, is an excel- 
lent practice. The tops of the grasses are not scorched and dried 
by the frosts through the winter. The rolling previously to harrow- 
ing, settles those parts of the furrow slices, which by lying hollow 
are raised above the rest. The harrowing closes the seams between 
the furrow slices ; especially as succeeding rains, wash the loose 
soil into them ; this greatly retards, and also partially prevents the 
growth of the grasses from the sides of the openings between the 
furrows ; also, by excluding much air, predisposes the sod to an 
earlier fermentation in the spring. Harrowing after this is injuri- 
ous ; it opens the soil ; and this not only procrastinates fermenta- 
tion, but also encourages the growth of the grasses from every part 
of the sod. But as Judge Peters rolled after harrowing, it is pro- 
bable that the extra rol ing and harrowing did neither good nor 
harm ; unless the cost of this useless labour be estimated. 

However this gentleman's practice furnishes valuable information. 
It shews that " as soon as the roots of the corn plant" have pene- 
trated the rotting sod, and mixed with the putrefying vegetable 
substances, it is wonderfully rapid in its improvement in colour 
and vigour ; it is especially worthy of remark that, "in the spot so 
often ploughed, the vegetation dried and perished uselessly, and 
the Indian corn was strikingly inferior to that on the rest of the 
field."! 

The extra ploughing of this small spot, by turning up the sod, 
checked fermentation : also exposed the roots, and the tops of the 
grasses and weeds to the useless waste described by Mr. Peters ; 
consequently a lack of nutriment caused the corn growing on it, to 
be " strikingly inferior to that on the rest of the field." Whereas 
the fermentation and partial decay of the tops and roots of the 
grasses and weeds, which took place in the larger part of the field, 
previously to ploughing up the sod in the first cultivation, predis- 
posed it to ferment more freely after it had been turned up, than , 
could have happened in the small spot, where the sod had been 
frequently disturbed by being so often ploughed. But notwith- 
standing these marked advantages, the crop on the larger part of 
the field sustained great loss, in consequence of turning up the sod. 
fermentation was greatly checked ; also the nutriment arising from 
that part of the grasses and weeds, which had been decomposed, 
was exposed to the very injurious influence of the rain, sun, and 
air ; and a considerable proportion of the vegetation which was not 

• See Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. pages 178, 179, and 181. f ^^'^(^> 181. 



136 

decomposed perished uselessly, as did that on the smalle^r spot 
which had been so often ploughed. 

The President says, when the corn requires ploughing, the sod 
is completely decayed, and becomes a manure : this should be bet- 
ter understood. Although the roots of the grasses have been re- 
versed, many of them grow freely, and are often found very diffi- 
cult to be subdued, even when the first cultivation takes place be- 
fore the plants are in general four inches high. 

When the first ploughing is done much later than this, the sod, in 
place of being decomposed, is commonly turned up in chunks, on 
which the tined harrow makes so little impression, that a multitude 
of them, or the remains of them, may be seen on the surface of the 
soil when the corn is gathered. I have seen when the soil was 
not hard bound, and the corn not ploughed until the plants were 
twelve inches high, the roots of the grasses dragged up by the tined 
harrow (which followed the plough,) in large heaps on the surface 
of the soil ; where this valuable vegetation generally perished* 
with but little benefit even to succeeding crops, or the land. 

Many cultivators to avoid this obvious evil turn up the grass lay 
tolerably deep, and with great dexterity turn a very shallow furrow 
when the corn is first cultivated, and the soil is but little disturb- 
ed. Strange however to tell, after this very prudent precaution, 
all of them (so far as my observation extends) plough deep the se- 
cond time, for the express purpose of turning up the sod, and mix- 
ing the vegetable matter with the soil. They however might have 
seen that this checks fermentation, and exposes the animal and 
vegetable matter to great waste. Also that (he roots of the plants 
at this time fill the soil in every direction, and the greater part of 
ihem are cut off and destroyed. Thus nature is compelled by this 
very inconsiderate practice to employ her efforts in restoring the 
roots of the plants, in place of applying them to the growth and 
maturity of the crop. However, when the corn plant is established 
in a tolerably good soil, and is kept free from weeds, it is strong 
and hardy, and notwithstanding this truly savage treatment, it 
will grow and produce valuable crops. 

Certainly this mode of management, (though much better than 
that which is generally pursued,) is far from harmonizing nature 
and reason in the practice of husbandry. For when the corn plant 
begins to shoot its prop roots, tassels, and ears, it requires every 
assistance that nature and art can afford, until the grain be filled. 
Of consequence cutting its roots, checking fermentation, and ex- 
posing the animal and vegetable matter to useless waste, are opposed 
to the economy of nature and the unprejudiced reason of man. 

I have often seen whole fields of corn that looked green and 
luxuriant, before the prop roots, tassels, and ear shoots appeared, 
that immediately after this very trying crisis turned sallow, and 
became unproductive, merely because a sufficiency of nutriment 
had not been provided to perfect the number of plants which had 
been arranged on the soil ; or the nutriment had been uselessly 



137 

wasted, and also rendered inactive, by an improper cultivation, 
which likewise inflicted the additional evil of mutilating the roots 
of the plants. 

The President says, when " the sod is completely decayed," it 
'• becomes a manure." It should never be forgotten, that it " be- 
comes a manure," so soon as fermentation and decomposition 
commence. This is clearly seen by the corn plant growing slowly, 
until these very interesting operations of nature, begin to convert 
the roots and the tops of the grasses and weeds into food for them; 
also, by observing that after this, " the plant is wonderfully rapid 
in its increase, and improvement in colour and vigour." It should 
likewise be well remembered, that, after " the sod is completely 
decayed," much of the nutriment which was contained in it, has 
been applied to the use of the crops grown on it; and that the 
remaining part of this nutriment ought to be kept secure from 
useless waste, that it, also, may be expended in the same beneficial 
way. The proper use of animal and vegetable matter, and the 
useless inconsiderate waste of these substances, are vastly more 
important to the interests of agriculture, than the writers on this 
subject seem to imagine. It is therefore considered useful to show 
that Mr. Peters destroyed much of this nutritious matter, in his 

firocrastinated and very laborious destruction of the star of Beth- 
ehem. This it appears had overrun the ground now under con- 
sideration : he says, " I was mortified by the discovery in this field 
of a. new enemy which defies all my efforts to subdue it. Mixed 
with some compost, made in part, of the cleanings of my garden, 
which had been spread several years, were a few bulbs of that 
destructive pest the star hyacinth, from which the increase has 
become ruinously great." " Flowers, innocent and grateful in the 
parterre, are often pests in the field." " But the one now mentioned 
does not always thus originate." " Thousands of acres, through 
the country, are rendered worthless by this agriculturally vile 
plant," it exhausts far beyond garlic ,* " meadows and fields once 
fertile and productive, are rendered by it barren and worthless.'''' 
" I earnestly wish that farmers would take the alarm," all I can 
do, until I pursue farther means, is to give " solemn warning." 

" In the spring of 1809,* I took the resolution, to hand weed an 
acre of the worst part of my field. 1 turned in the plough, and 
had a man to lead boys, in hand weeding after the plough and 
harrow, but could not get through above half an acre ; from this I 
collected, in repeated ploughings and harrowings, at least one hun- 
dred and fifty bushels of bulbs ; but the boys grew tired and I 
abandoned the task." "My field remained remarkably clean and 
free from weeds ; an advantage attending this mode of treating 
soddy grass grounds." " The field is now winter fallowed and 
limed, in preparation for field peas, potatoes and other ameliorating 
crops to precede wheat. It is in fine tilth, and the former covering 

* The dates seem to clash. 
S 



138 

of grasses, and other common vegetation (with the exception be- 
fore stated,) entirely rotted, and mixed through the ground mel- 
lowed by culture." " The garlic I do not fear, but too many of 
the other bulbs remain to annoy me; an early spring ploughing 
will, under its present fitness for it, be highly serviceable, and 
complete its tilth ; this will do as much good as one immediately 
after the first fall ploughing would have done mischief." 

It is difficult to conceive how it has happened that the President 
in this communication, says potatoes are ameliorating, and employs 
them as a proper preparative crop for wheat. In the third volume of 
the Memoirs, when speaking of this plant, he says, " that it is an ex- 
hauster we have long knowii ;" also, that, " it should be cultivated 
as a crop by itself, and not in connection with a grain course."* 

Of the star hyacinth, or star of Bethlehem, we hear no more 
until the third volume of the Memoirs is published ; in that this gen- 
tleman tells us, that, " By potatoes and frequent ploughing in au- 
tumn and early spring, I have conquered the pest I mentioned in 
the second volume, p. 178, the star of Bethlehem: his had alarmed 
me more than any other weed." " The bulbs where brought into my 
field among unrotted litter from my garden.f" In the second vo- 
lume he says, " mixed with some compost made in part of the clean- 
ings of my graden were a few bulbs of that destructive pest the star 
hyacinth, from which the increase has been ruinously great." Com- 
post does not seem to be unrotted litter brought into a field from a 
garden. 

However, as the President tells us the star hyacinth " does not 
always thus originate," it seems to be but of little consequence 
how this plant got into his field : especially as it seems to have been 
the native companion of poverty and bad cultivation in the "thou- 
sands of acres," "meadows and fields," which, he says, "were once 
fertile and productive," but had been "rendered barren and worth- 
less^' by " this agriculturally vile plant," " which exhausts far be- 
yond garlic." 

It has never been proved that garlic exhausts the soil. On the 
contrary, it requires so little nutriment that it will thrive and abound 
on soils which have been so much exhausted by bad husbandry that 
none of the cultivated grasses can prosper on them. 

It may be laid down as a maxim in farming, that any vegetation 
which can be ploughed under the soil is far better than none. Also, 
that the profit arising from the proper use of garlic, or any other 
■weed, is increased in proportion to the increased quantity that may 
happen to be growing on the soil. Neither the tops nor the bulbs 
of garlic appear to be deficient in nutriment. The latter especially 
seem to be well calculated to return enriching matter to the land. 
But as nature has constructed bulbous rooted plants, so that culti- 
vation makes but little impression on them, while their vegetative 

* See Appendix of vol. iii. page 54. 

t See Mem. Pliil. Agr. Soc, vol. iii. page 235. 



139 

properties remain dormant, and but too few farmers have given suf- 
ficient attention to this circumstance, it has been found difficult to 
subdue them. However, neither they, nor any other plant, can with- 
stand repeated mutilation, while their vegetative pawers are in ac- 
tion ; especially if the cultivation be so ordered, that none of the 
plants which vegetate so as to approach near the surface of the soil, 
can escape being cut oif a little within it every time the growing crop 
is cultivated. By this means the part remaining within the soil is 
severely wounded, and being also closely covered by the earth 
above it, a powerful fermentation is promoted ; consequently, the 
ultimate destruction of the plant, (be it what it may,) is more cer- 
tainly effected than by any other method which has yet been pro- 
posed. The common plough does not sufficiently mangle the roots of 
any kind of grasses or weeds, and but very few bulbous roots can 
be cut or mangled by it. Whereas none of the stalks ojj stems of 
any weed or grass, that approach nearly up to the surface of the 
soil, can escape the operation of the hoe harrow, when properly 
used in the superficial cultivation of a fallow crop ; except those 
standing between or very near to the growing plants, and there the 
hand hoe is equally effectual. The same also happens when the 
soil is prepared by the hoe harrow, for the small grain that follows 
the fallow crop ; especially as the tined harrow, (which should al- 
ways immediately follow the hoe harrow,) overturns and severely 
mangles the vegetation which had been cut off by the latter a little 
within the surface of the soil. To illustrate this : nature having 
intended the grasses for the food of many animals, has so construct- 
ed them, that they are not eradicated by being very frequently, and 
also closely, cropped or cut off. Still, it will be found that no 
method in common practice, except deep trench ploughing, or root- 
ing them out, will so soon and as effectually destroy the hardiest 
grasses as frequently cutting them off a little within the surface of 
the soil, and keeping the roots below this point closely covered by 
the loosened earth above them. 

This is clearly seen when a scuffle (or D hoe, as it is called by 
some,) is used to destroy the grass in garden paths, which had been 
covered by nature or art with a sod. The cause is evident, for a 
powerful fermentation is promoted in the wounded grasses by the 
covering above them. A very similar effect is also produced, if a 
small bunch of hay, or a board, or even a piece of a close wove mat» 
happen to fall or to be laid on a sod. If the covering be removed 
after the grass roots under it have been decomposed, it will be found 
that the powerfully expanding force of the fermentation excited by 
this trivial cause, has made the soil more open and mellow, and also 
divided its parts more minutely than could be accomplished by the 
usual mode of cultivation, provided the soil be well stored with the 
roots of the grasses ; for the fermentation will be in proportion to 
the animal and vegetable matter found in it. 

The result of Judge Peters's practice in the destruction of the star 
hyacinth "pest," seems to determine that nature had filled up tho 



140 

vacancies in his grass grounds with a plant that was more difficult 
to be subdued than many others which might have been vastly more 
useful to him : also, that of this he had no right to complain ; for 
the evil could have been readily avoided by proper management. 
The plant, far from being a desirable one, was by no means very 
difficult to be subdued ; for no part of his management, except that 
before the first cultivation of the corn crop, was well calculated to 
effect this end. If the vegetation introduced by the star hyacinth 
had been properly used during the cultivation of the field, he would 
have found that nature had been kind in introducing even this 
hardy plant, where better vegetation had been excluded. It was 
the farmers who occupied those " thousands of acres," " meadows 
and fields," who were in their practice and management " agri- 
culUiralty vile,''' and not the plant which has been so severely and 
unjustly a|)u^ed by the Judge. He, however, says, " I find it to be 
a favourite with our highly intelligent member, Professor Barton, 
who looks only on its good qualities." 

I know nothing of the particular good qualities of this plant. I 
do, however, know that it and every other plant which can be rea- 
dily ploughed under the soil, may be converted into very valuable 
manure ; also, that every plant found in our fields should be as care- 
fully applied in this way, as any of those which are justly more 
highly esteemed by us : likewise, that if the farmers who occupied 
those " thousands of acres," " meadows and fields," had kept their 
grounds well cultivated, eveji in the usual way, they would not have 
been overrun with the star 6f Bethlehem, or any other plant that 
did not suit their purpose. This clearly appears in the President's 
practice ; especially as it ceased to be proper so soon as he turned 
up the sod. For he says " my field remained remarkably clean 
and free from weeds ; an advantage attending soddy grass grounds." 
"The garlic I do not fear; but too many of the other bulbs remain 
to annoy me." 

Thus we find that the cultivation of a crop of maize, very imper- 
fectly ordered, reduced the numbers of this (supposed) " destructive 
pest,'' which was believed to be " ruinously great," so much that the 
cultivator is merely annoyed by it. Also, that " by potatoes and 
frequent ploughing in autumn and early spring, the pest was con- 
quered." The potato is one of the worst plants that can be culti- 
vated with a view to the destruction of weeds. First, because it is 
planted late. Secondly, it is generally ridged up; therefore, the 
cultivation of it must be of short duration, or the fruit roots are 
cut off, and the crop greatly injured.* Thirdly, the bulbous " pests," 
or the seeds from them or other weeds, are buried underneath the 
ridges beyond the power of vegetation. Fourthly, when the crop 
is gathered, these seeds and bulbous " pests" are spread abroad, as 
if sown to produce another crop of the same description. There- 
fore, the imperfect cultivation of the President's crop of corn, to- 

* That is, when tlus plant is cultivated in the usual way. 



141 

gether with the cultivation of the potato crop which followed it, 
were not, (when united,) capable of subduing the bulbous " pest," 
as effectually as a single crop of maize pi^operly ordered. Neither 
would this " pest" have been subdued, if the extra ploughings and 
harrowings done in the fall and early in spring had been omitted. 

Maize is one of the best fallow plants that can be cultivated with 
j».view to the destruction of weeds. It ought to be planted as early 
as frost will admit. It continues long on the ground, and not only 
admits but likewise requires a very perfect cultivation. No plant 
seems to suffer more from the injurious influence of weeds ; conse- 
quently, the superficial cultivation of a crop of corn, together with 
the cultivation of the soil with the hoe and tined harrows, for the 
small grain following it, would far better subdue this bulbous " pest," 
or any other weed, than the practice pursued by Mr. Peters. This 
mode of management would also save the animal and vegetable mat- 
ter, which was uselessly destroyed by him ; all the beneficial effects 
produced by a well directed fermentation are by this means brought 
into active use. 

Now as the star hyacinth might have been subdued by two, in the 
place of three crops ; and without the frequent extra ploughings and 
harrowings done by this gentleman ; not only in " autumn and early 
in spring," but throughout the whole of his very laborious and in- 
considerate practice, the difference in labour would have been very 
great. One ploughing, with the very expeditious cultivation done 
by the hoe and tined harrows, would have been sufficient for both 
these crops. Why then did the President ^' earnestly alarm,^' or 
"give farmers" a "solemn warning," of the imaginary "destruc- 
tive" and " ruinous" properties of a plant that might have been 
very profitably used by him ? 

If the boys had not " grown tired and abandoned" the tedious 
" task," and the pest had been subdued by them, is it not probable 
that, Mr. Peters's very mistaken apprehension of the " ruinous, des- 
tructive ravages," and " unconquerable" properties of this agricultu- 
rally " vile plant," would have led him to publish that it could not 
be subdued except by hand weeding, or, by "paring and burning?" 
The latter he says he should have done, " but his public engage- 
ments obstructed him from such employment." 

Hand weeding, together with the necessary ploughing and harrow- 
ing, would have cost a great deal of money. After it had been done, 
(unless the soil had been run through a sieve calculated for the 
purpose,) many of the bulbs would have escaped, especially those 
that were young and small. These, together with the seed that had 
been scattered on the soil previously to turning up the sod, would 
have produced a new and plentiful growth of the " pest." For as 
both corn and potatoes are commonly ridged up, the bulbs, as well 
as seeds scattered by the plants, are buried underneath the ridges 
beyond the power of vegetation, and spread abroad when the grounds 
are cultivated for the small grain, as if to produce another growth 
of "pests." The hand weeding would also have greatly injured the 



142 

crop and the soil, by the removal of this very valuable vegetation, 
which may be seen by the one hundred and fifty bushels of bulbs re- 
moved by the President from " not more than half an acre" of 
ground. This is three hundred bushels to the acre. Equal in mea- 
sure to an average crop of turnips in this country, where that plant 
is too seldom hoed or cultivated in any other way. Whether there 
be more or less nutriment for plants in a bushel of the bulbs of th^ 
star hyacinth, than there is in the same measurement of turnips, is 
unknown to me. It is, however, well known, that some plants which 
are not relished either by man or domesticated animals, are rich and 
valuable manure. The turnip has been cultivated for the express 
purpose of manuring the grounds on which it was grown. When 
injured by frost, it is applied to that use by attentive cultivators, and 
found very valuable. Why then should a crop of the star hyacinth, 
or any other weed which nature has kindly introduced, where the 
cultivator, either by neglect or mismanagement, has prevented the 
growth of such plants as would have far better suited his purpose, 
be uselessly destroyed by great labour and expense, when, for aught 
we know to the contrary, they may be more valuable for manure 
than some of the plants which are justly very highly esteemed by 
us ? especially as no plant can withstand the destructive effects pro- 
duced by a well difected^fermentation ; and it is certain that there 
can be but few weeds, which will not yield, in proportion to their 
number and size, as much nutriment for plants, when they are 
ploughed green under the soil, as either buckwheat or sea-weed. 
Both these plants have been found very valuable manure when used 
in that way. Although, when either of them is decomposed pre- 
viously to application, the evaporation from them is so great, that 
the remains are but of little comparative value. 

As the destruction occasioned by paring the soil, and burning 
the vegetation contained in and upon it, has been explained ; any 
comment on what would have happened, by the introduction of 
this savage practice, to subdue the star hyacinth, would be useless. 



CHAPTER XII. 

A proper and an improper cultivation contrasted. The speargrasses let in 
weeds. Red clover smothers them. Small grain, sown in the spring, fa- 
vours tl\e destruction of weeds, more than grain sown in the fall. Observa- 
tions on the lenient properties of plants. The grasses are far cheaper and 
more enriching than the cultivated crops generally grown and turned under 
for manure. The application of fresh dung advocated. It does not, as we 
have been told, " burst the vessels of most valuable plants." Neither does 
it " produce in grain crops, smut, blight, and mildew ;" nor do " myriads 
of mice and moles infest potato crops," in consequence of the application 
of " strawy muck" as manure for this plant. 

JuDOE Peters's practice, in his fallow crops of maize, grown in 
1808, and the cultivation of the crops following it, seem to atford 
subjects for interesting remarks : particularly as the management 
of the corn crop, (except some extra labour done with a view to 
destroy garlic,) is the same as that pursued by many farmers who 
turn up a grass lay in the fall, and plough it again in the spring- 
previously to planting, which, as this gentleman very justly re- 
marks, when describing the management of his corn crop grown in 
the following year, " turns up the sod with all its pests and adhe- 
sions." 

Of the crops now to be considered he says, " I have now a fine 
field of wheat. Two years ago it was so infested with garlic, that 
the hay, in winter, was unfit for my cows ; as it gave the milk a 
most disgusting taste. In 1807, I gave it a fall ploughing; and in 
the spring of 1808 I ploughed it again, as early as the frost per- 
mitted. At the usual time I planted Indian corn." " I cut off the 
cornstalks, fall ploughed, and limed lightly. Wishing to cover 
my fallow in the spring, I procured Albany peas. I was obliged 
to send to New York for my peas, which occasioned delay ; and, 
although I ploughed early, I sowed a month too late." " They 
came up evenly, and looked remarkably well, till the pods appear- 
ed, when heavy rains laid them, and I lost my crop of peas; but 
did not lose the benefit of their cover. Two acres of the same 
field were highly dunged, and planted with potatoes ; I sowed 
wheat in the potato ground, ten days before my pea fallow was 
ready. A remarkable dry season prevented my sowing in the 
time I wished. During the drought, I gave an extraordinary 
ploughing, to cover and protect a moderate dressing of well rotted 
dung, on the pea fallow.* About the middle of October, I harrowed 
in my wheat, sowed on it timothy seed, and rolled it in." 

• This should not be called an extra ploughing, as the dung could not have 
been covered without it 



144 

" The garlic is apparently destroyed in the whole field. I could, 
in the winter, have collected many bushels of dead bulbs of garlic; 
which had been exposed by the harrow after the fall ploughing. In 
this way I have cleared many a field of garlic ; but in three years 
(often in two) the seed, which had been lying torpid, vegetated, and 
produced a new crop of pests. I have a field adjoining, preparing 
for a similar course-''* 

The President's remarks on the small spot so often ploughed in 
his corn field of 1809, together with my observations thereon, are 
sufficient to explain the very bad consequences arising from •' turn- 
ing up the sod" in the spring, " with all its pests and adhesions." 
It, however, seems strange, that in 1808, this gentleman should do 
this, although he tells us, in 1809, " this I never do." He likewise 
enumerates the advantages derived from letting the sod remain un- 
disturbed until the corn be ploughed. 

The field now under consideration was ploughed five times, and 
very frequently harrowed before the peas were sown. It is not 
said how often it was rolled, or how often it was ploughed, in the 
cultivation of the fallow crops. Enough, however, is said, to de- 
termine that the amount of useless and very injurious labour was 
very great; whereas one ploughing, with the remainder done by 
the hoe and tined harrow, would have executed the whole much 
better, and with very little comparative expense, if the grounds 
had been properly ordered. 

The liming provided food for the pea crop; but this was done at 
the expense of the animal and vegetable matter found in the soil. 
The well rotted dung afforded nutriment for the wheat, but half the 
original quantity would have done this, if it had been applied pre- 
viously to fermentation. However, as dung, (whether it be or be 
not decomposed,) introduces weeds when a[>plied for small grain, 
the original quantity ought to have been applied for the corn crop, 
previously to its being uselessly wasted by fermentation : especially 
as this arrangement would have more than doubled the quantity 
of corn, and also furnished sufficient nutriment for the wheat crop. 
If the garlic and other " pests," together with the roots and tops 
of the grasses, be kept under, and properly used within the soil, 
in place of being uselessly destroyed on the surface of it, the 
ground would have been enriched for the growth of the grasses 
following the cultivated crops; also improved for the growth of 
a succeeding round of crops; and the cost of the lime, as well as 
the extra labour, might have been saved, with one year's rent of the 
land. 

If the pea crop had not failed, the increased product of the corn 
wouhl have been more valuable than it. As from seventy-five to 
eighty bushels of shelled corn per acre, is but a moderate crop of 
that grain, when as much fresh unfermented dung is applied to the 
acre, as will, after it has been rotted, be sufficient to manure an 

♦ See Mem. Philad. Agr. See. vol. ii. pages 126, 127, 128. 



145 

•icie for wheat. Now we know, that the "general rate of crops" 
of maize grown without dung, (as was the President's, and as is 
the too general practice,) docs not under the favourable circum- 
stances of a grass lay, average more than thirty bushels of shelled 
corn to the acre. That this gentleman has not been accustomed to 
get much, if any more, than this, when the crop has derived no ad- 
vantage from dung, may be clearly seen in a note made by him in 
the second volume of the Memoirs, page 203. 

Wheat sown in the fall continues too long on the ground to fa- 
vour the destruction of garlic, or other hardy weeds. Therefore 
spring wheat, barley, or oats, should in this case be sown. 

The Superficial cultivation for the spring crop, will have a pow- 
erfully destructive effect on such weeds as may happen to vegetate 
in the fall, winter or spring, before the small grain is sown. Barley 
is the best crop when hardy weeds are to be subdued. It comes off 
early, and this gives the clover a better chance to outgrow, and 
overtop the weeds. "Timothy" and all the speargrasses let in 
weeds. Red clover should be sown, when the destruction of them 
is a material object. The close shade formed by that plant when a 
sufficiency of seed is sown smothers many weeds ; and prevents 
many that are not destroyed from perfecting their seed. It is best 
to mow the clover, as the scythe when well applied destroys many 
weeds, when this grass is mowed in proper time. The longer it 
stands, the greater will be the number of the seeds of the weeds 
spread over the soil. If the clover must be pastured, great care 
should be taken to preserve a sufficiency of the grass, to keep the 
grounds always closely covered and shaded by it. Many plain, 
but good practical farmers, (who live where a high/~price for hay 
does not tempt them to impoverish their farms by the sale of it,) 
are in the excellent practice of keeping their cattle in pastures, 
where the clover is nearly as high as their knees; here the cattle 
soon fill themselves, and retire to rest in the shade; such farmers 
always thrive. The covering of the clover skreens the soil, and the 
enriching matter deposited on it by the atmosphere, and also the 
leaves, &c. dropped by the growing plants, from the injurious ac- 
tion of the sun and air; it also smothers many weeds. When this 
vegetation is ploughed under the ground, either for fallow crops, or 
for crops of small grain, the product is generally greatly increased 
by this very judicious mode of management. Ir, however, these 
farmers would not turn up the sod, either in the cultivation of the 
fallow crop, or in the cultivation for the small grain following it, 
they would find that both these crops did not exhaust the soil 
more, if as much, as a single crop of corn, or of any other strong 
and vigorous plant cultivated in the usual way : also, that the pro- 
duct of both crops would be much greater, than if the small grain 
had followed the fallow crop in the usual way, and that weeds 
would be far better subdued. 

A spring crop of small grain is vastly preferable to a crop of the 
same description sown in the fall, when the destruction of weeds 

T 



146 

is a material object, and should always be employed for that pur» 
toose. I have not, however, found garlic difficult to be subdued by 
|he first round of crops; so far, that neither the flower from the 
grain, nor the milk and butter from the cows, were perceptibly in- 
jured by it; when wheat sown in the fall followed the fallow crop, 
and a sufficiency of red clover seed was sown on it, even when the 
grounds were cultivated in the usual way. It has, however, been my 
practice never to spare cultivation, when it was believed, that the 
fallow crop would be benefited by it, and to use the hand hoe free- 
ly, where the plough and harrow could not disturb the weeds. Also, 
not to suffer my grounds to continue longer than three years in 
grass. It is true the weeds are not generally as effectually subdu- 
ed, as we might wish them to be, by the first round of crops, be the 
cultivation what it may. Some of them are very hardy, and the 
seeds have been accumulating for ages, with but too little attention 
given to the destruction of them. Still every round of crops less- 
ens their number. Why then should farmers complain ? especially 
as while they continue to annoy us, (more than we would wish,) 
valuable nutriment may be readily obtained from them, for the 
growth of the plants, that are justly much more highly esteemed 
by us. 

Notwithstanding the President, and too many other gentlemen, 
say, it is probable, that "peas give to the soil a balance beyond 
their receipts from it ;" practice in their gardens (if no where else) 
ought to have taught them better than this. Many plants are call- 
ed ameliorating, but every plant exhausts th^'soil if its product be 
removed from it. Some plants require more nutriment from the 
ground than others ; those that require the least from it, and ob- 
tain the most from the atmosphere, among which peas are properly 
enumerated, may be justly called lenient plants ; this term is de- 
scriptive of the properties of the plant, and expressive of what 
really takes place in the soil. But to ameliorate is to make better, 
and the soil, in place of being enriched by any plant that is growa 
on it, is made poorer, if the product be removed. If, however, it 
be applied as manure, every ]»lant, not excepting the President's 
" pests," becomes ameliorating. Still it is reasonable to believe, 
that those which shade the soil closely, or draw the greatest pro- 
portion of their support from the atmosphere, or from below the 
range of the roots of plants in general, or that will live and prosper 
on the least nutriment, will be the most enriching to the soil on 
which they are grown, when applied as manure for it : provided, 
they are as well stored with nutritive matter, as plants that are 
more exhausting than they are. As red clover seems to possess all 
these valuable properties in a greater degree than any other plant 
generally cultivated by us ; and luxuriant crops of this grass are 
readily excited, by the proper use of gypsum with but little ex- 
pense, almost any soil may be soon enriched or ameliorated by this 
invaluable plant. J 

It is evident Mr. Peters acted as if he could not depend either 



147 , 

on the lime, or the "ameliorating" properties of the peas, to furnish 
sufficient nutriment for the wheat ; he applied clung for that crop, 
and in doing this, he acted wisely. For much of the animal and 
vegetable matter had been destroyed by the very injudicious culti- 
vation of the corn crop, and the lime decomposed a great part of 
the remainder for the peas. 

This gentleman's course of ^cultivated crops procrastinated the 
sowing of grass seeds too long, unless the soil was much richer 
than it seems to have been ; the sooner the grass seeds are sown, 
the sooner the grounds are filled with the roots of the grasses, than 
which nothing (except farm yard or other rich manure) seems so 
effectually to counteract the exhausting effects of cultivated crops: 
especially, when the succeeding cultivation of the grounds be cal- 
culated to save the nutriment arising from the roots of the grass 
from useless waste. When the roots alone are used for manure, 
they cost neither labour nor money, and when the tops are applied 
with the roots, the cost is much less than that of any other manure 
equally enriching. Green crops grown for the express purpose of 
manure, are considered cheaper by far, than the same quantity of 
nutriment for plants that could be obtained in any other way. 
How much cheaper must be the tops and roots of the grasses, 
which have cost no labour except sowing the seed, and it would 
seem that this labour, as well as the cost of the seed, has been 
amply remunerated before the grasses are applied for manure. 
There is no question with me that, when the very superior value 
of the roots of the grasses are estimated, the manure from a crop of 
grass ploughed under the soil, far exceeds in value that obtained 
from any other green crop generally cultivated for that purpose. 

Some remarks on what Judge Peters says, of the destruction of 
the May weed is considered useful, especially as the subject seems 
to be introduced for the express purpose of frightening farmers, by 
a long string of " terrific" words, from the practice of using fresh 
muck, even if " necessity" should urge them to do it. 

This gentleman aays, in the midst of his observations on the de- 
structive properties of " hot muck," " three years ago, I used, from 
necessity, unrotted litter for potatoes. I was punished for my aberra- 
tion by Si most terrific and /jro/wse growth of the May weed or daisy; 
the seeds whereof had been among the muck. I am scourged by the 
vile and exhausting pest like a slave flagellated by his driver. I re- 
volt ; and my hatred is increased by every repetition of the lash. 
This season I sacrificed a fine sod of timothy and clover, infested 
by the daisy, which I have ploughed under with another potato 
crop ; with this I shall defeat the foe, attacked before becoming a 
veteran."* 

The muck could not have generated the seeds of the May weed ; 
they must have been mixed with the food or litter provided for the 
cattle. Of consequence were the product of the President's farm, 

• See Mem. Philad, Agr. See. vol. ill. page 234, 



lis 

which (notwithstanding he tells us that the seeds of weeds are de- 
stroyed by rotting the dung) seems to be overrun by various "vile 
exhausting pests," or more properly speaking, by plants which are 
the companions of poverty and a bad system of cultivation. What 
I have already quoted from his communications in the second and 
third volume of the Memoirs, determines that four of his fields were 
overrun with the " pests." These, if my memory be correct, are all 
he speaks of cultivating. Whether the I'emainder of his grounds 
were or were not in the same condition is unknown to me. It, how- 
ever, seems probable that as they were subjected to the same man- 
agement there was but little difterence in the whole. Now if de- 
composing the dung kills the seeds of the " pests," how does it hap- 
pen that the President's farm (after his practice of near half a cen- 
tury,) seems to be overrun with weeds, when we do not hear the 
" hot muck farmers" complaining of" pests;" although but few if 
any or them have resided any thing like so long on one farm as he 
has.-* 

But what puzzles me most, is how it was possible for a fine sod 
of timothy and clover, and " a most tein'ijic and profuse growth of 
the May weed," both to exist together on the same soil, for the 
one seems to be as much opposed to the other as light is to darkness. 

I have before assigned reasons why potatoes are one of the worst 
fallow crops that can be grown with a view to the destruction of 
weeds, and as the President says, " I cannot subdue" " this vile ex- 
hausting pest" without great exertions; and even with them not 
entirely, unless I hand weed ;"* it seems strange that he should 
expect to defeat this "terrific foe" "by turning under the sod 
with a potato crop." The May weed blossoms early, and the 
plants that sprang up among the small grain which followed the first 
potato crop, no question spread a profuse quantity of the seed of 
this " pest" over the timothy and clover lay. When this sod was 
ploughed under with " another potato crop," and the plants earthed 
up, these seed were buried under the ridges beyond the power of 
vegetation. There they lay torpid until the crop, was gathered ; 
and were then spread abroad, as if sown to produce another crop 
of " pests." 

If a proper fallow crop had been selected, and superficially culti- 
vated, all the seeds of the May weed that were buried beyond the 
power of vegetation by turning up the sod, would have remained 
undisturbed ; and of course torpid. Those lying near enough to 
the surface of the soil to grow, would not have been turned deeper 
under it; and after they had vegetated would have been destroyed 
by the cultivation of the fallow crop, and by the superficial prepa- 
ration of the soil, for the small grain following it. 

Mr. Peters says, that "the violent and outrageous operations of 
fresh and hot muck, (acting as well on the pest it brings along with 
\t, as on the crop it is intended to stimulate and nourish,) are as 

* See Mem, Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. iii. page 234. 



149 

ungovernable, and often as morbid, exhausting and mischievous as 
the unrestrained, though temporaril j jooient exertions of one making 
infuriated and desultory efforts, under paroxysms of a fever. 
Sometimes its fury is spent on itself."* Also, that '* the violent 
operations of hot muck, burst the vessels of most valuable plants," 
^ and " produce in grain crops, smut, blight, and mildew.f Likewise 
that "when the superabundant azote, and poisonous qualities of 
muck escape, the residuum is more than worth the whole mass." 
And that " fermenting muck infects the ground with a durably de- 
leterious taint, instead of fertilizing it with wholesome capacities."! 
Also that " a strawy muck is frequently applied for potato crops, and 
the myriads of mice and moles infesting them are fatally known."§ 
l^ere I beg leave to observe, that neither a long string of technical 
terms, nor words put together in any way, can alter facts, or change 
the nature of things. This gentleman must have known before he 
put these words together, that we are not bound to believe any 
thing which is not supported by suflBcient evidence; especially if it 
seems to be opposed to nature, reason and common sense. There- 
fore he ought to have informed us how we might observe, that the 
operations of fresh muck were " violent and outrageous,^^ acting as 
well on the pests it brings along with it, as on the crop it is intended 
to stimulate and nourish." Also, how we may discover that these 
"operations of fresh muck" are as '^ungovernable, morbid, exhaust- 
ing and mischievous as the unrestrained, though temporarily po- 
tent exertions of one making infuriated and desultory efforts un- 
der the paroxysms o( & fever." And how it happens that " some- 
times its /wry is spent on itself." He ought likewise to have in- 
formed us, whether its action on the pests " stimulates and nour- 
ishes" them, while it "poisons" and spreads destruction in the 
crop, for this seems to be implied. Also, how it happens that fresh 
muck, (which must contain all the enriching properties of the dung,) 
exhausts the land: especially when all its nutritive contents seem 
to be secured by ploughing it under the soil. Likewise, how we 
may discover the " azote and poisonous qualities of muck, that in- 
fects the ground with a durably deleterious taint, instead of fertili- 
zing it with wholesome capacities." For although but few if any 
of the " fresh and hot muck farmers," claim the experience of so 
long a practice as does the President, it would seem that, if any of 
those evils actually existed, their practice must have been sufficient 
to discover at least some appearance of them, 

Mr. M'Mahon, in his book on Gardening, recommends forming 
hot beds with fresh dung, from two to four feet deep; but says 
nothing of the " bursting of the vessels," even of the most delicato; 
plants. When speaking of the application of fresh dung, for the 
growth of plants in the usutil way, he tells us it becomes a dryish 
wisp, incapable of affording nourishment to plants. 

* See Mem. Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. iii. pages 221 and 222. 

t Idem, page 223. ± Idem, pages 231 and 233. § Idem, page 222, 



150 

Both these gentlemen claim long practical information. Still as 
they are immediately opposed to each other, both cannot be right. 
But as it commonly happens, the truth lies between those wide 
extremes. Fresh dung applied in the usual way, for the growth of 
plants, does not become a dryish wisp; on the contrary it is gradu- 
ally decomposed, and affords double the quantity of nutriment for 
plants, that is obtained from it, after it has been rotted or decom- 
posed. When the litter, that may be readily obtained from a well 
managed farm, is carefully and properly used, the quantity of 
manure made by this very profitable practice is greatly increased. 
Fresh dung is, however, so far from acting violently, or bursting 
the vessels of the most delicate plants, that it acts quite as mildly as 
decomposed dung, whether it be or be not incorporated with litter. 
The quantity, in either case, may be readily so ordered, that vege- 
tation Mrill not be injured by an excess of nutriment or heat. 

Still, if 1 were to grow a wager crop of maize, or any other plant 
that is not readily injured by a powerful application of manure, 
dung in a very high state of fermentation, and partially decom- 
posed, would be greatly preferred by me. It would act more power- 
fully than fresh muck in the beginning, and enough of it would per- 
fect the crop. This is, however, no reason why a farmer, (who 
ought to have a succession of crops and the improvement of his 
soil in view,) should adopt this wasteful practice, or that of decom- 
posing his dung, until the greater part of its nutritive properties 
is scattered in the air. 

If the cause of the " mildew" has been pointed out, it seems not 
to be known, or distinguished, from the many mistaken causes, 
which are said to produce this destructive effect. It is, however, 
evident that the cause, (be it what it may,) is vastly more pre- 
valent some years than it is in others. It would also seem that 
some situations are more subject to this disease than others. Per- 
haps none so much as grounds that lie low ; especially if rivers or 
creeks pass by or near to them. Still the effects seem to be the 
same, whether fresh or decomposed dung be used. Also, when en- 
riching manure of no kind has been applied. 

" Smut" seems to prevail most in our back settlements, where 
the country is but partially opened or cleared from its wood : also, 
in climates where .an unusual portion of moisture prevails. It does 
not, however, appear to be increased either by the application of 
fresh or decomposed dung, or by the soil being rich or poor. 

Different diseases are termed "blights," therefore I do not know 
the one to which the President alludes ; but so far as my observa- 
tion extends, no disease to which grain crops are subject seems to 
be even augmented by the application of either fresh or decomposed 
dung, or enriching manure of any description. 

If myriads of mice and moles infest potato crops, when strawy 
muck is used, it seems strange that farmers should generally apply 
this kind of manure for potatoes. It is also observable that neither 
ihe rats nor the mice which infest our buildings, nor any of the 



151 

quadrupeds which pillage our fields, seem to be fond of this root. 
However, as moles and ground mice will feed on it, where nothing 
that suits them better is to be had, there can be but little doubt that, 
(whether fresh or decomposed dung be applied,) the injury done by 
them will be " fatally known," if they should ever happen to exist 
in such large numbers as the President mentions. 

In fact, this gentleman's assertions seem to have been made with- 
out considering either practical or chemical facts. He says that 
"when the superabundant azote and poisonous qualities of the muck 
escape, the residuum is more than worth the whole mass." The 
"poisonous qualities," like "infuriated," "unrestrained," &c. are, 
(when used to explain the properties of dung,) va^ue expressions ; 
therefore, what is meant by them cannot be certainly understood. 
It is, however, otherwise with " azote," and of this Sir H. Davy 
certainly did not find any in dung. In the detail of his experi- 
ments on " hot fermenting manure, consisting principally of litter 
and dung of cattle," he says he found '• some azote, probably no 
more than existed in the common air in the receiver." This gen- 
tleman also wisely remarks, that '♦ the doctrine of the proper ap- 
plication of manures from organized substances, ofters an illustration 
of an important part of the economy of nature, and the happy or- 
der in which it is arranged." 

" The death and decay of animal substances tend to resolve or- 
ganized forms into chemical constituents; and the pernicious efflu- 
via disengaged in the process seem to point out the propriety of 
burying them in the soil, where they are fitted to become the food 
of vegetables. The fermentation and putrefaction of organized 
substances in the free atmosphere, are noxious processes ; beneath 
the surface of the ground they are salutary operations. In this case 
the food of plants is prepared where it can be used ; and that which 
would offend the senses and injure the health, if exposed, is con- 
verted by gradual processes into forms of beauty and usefulness ; 
the foetid gas is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, 
and what might be poison, becomes nourishment to animals and to 
man."* 

But Mr. Peters's practice is immmediately opposed to this very 
rational theory ; he says, " the dreams or the labours of alchemists 
certainly never realized, if they have imagined, so much treasure 
by transmutation, as well managed stercoraries are capable of pro- 
ducing. But removing from them prematurely the foundation of 
their utility, is at once blowing out the furnace."! 

Attaching so much consequence to this destructive furnace, seems 
to be transferring the dreams or the labours of alchemists to the 
stercorary, or dunghill. It, however, furnishes a very proper name 
for this consuming evaporator. It seems to be the principal cause 
why this gentleman is continually " scourged," " flagellated," " lash- 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 308, 309. 

t See Mem. of the Pliilad. Agr. Soc. vol. iii. page 226. 



152 

ed," and "driven like a slave," by some "vile exhausting pest," 
for he purifies his dung in this furnace, from " the (supposed) su- 
perabundant azote and poisonous qualities of the muck," which 
"infect the ground with a durably deleterious taint, instead of 
fertilizing it with wholesome capacities." In doing of this the 
greater part of the nutriment contained in the manure, is destroy- 
ed before it is believed to be sufficiently refined : consequently, the 
soil is exhausted, by being robbed of at least one-half of the enrich- 
ing matter contained in the dung. This, of course, produces 
" wholesome capacities" for the growth of such weeds as are the 
"companions of poverty;" for they are not rooted out or opposed 
by plants that cannot exist or prosper on a poor soil. He says of 
garlic, " I always believed it to be a spontaneous native product, 
the companion, if not the offspring, of poverty ;" and when speak- 
ing of the destruction of it, says, " my experience, for more than 
forty years, has convinced me that early ploughing in the spring, 
and most especially if succeeded by fall ploughing, is the remedy."* 
We also find that in 1807 and 1808 he was busily engaged in the 
destruction of garlic ; and from that time until the third volume of 
the Memoirs is published, he is actively employed in the destruc- 
tion of it and other " pests," notwithstanding he tells us that he had 
before " cleared many a field of garlic," but that in three years, 
(often in two,) the seed vegetated, and produced a new crop of 
" pests."t The seeds of weeds will vegetate, (especially in grounds 
that have been overrun with them,) unless the order of nature be 
altered to meet the inconsiderate wishes of man. If they, how- 
ever, " produce a new crop of pests," to an extent that is material- 
ly injurious, it must proceed either from neglecting the cultivation 
of the grounds too long, or from a system of management that is 
better calculated to impoverish than enrich the soil. Now, cer- 
tainly, rotting the dung before it is used, and exposing the animal 
and vegetable matter contained in the soil to useless waste, by an 
injudicious cultivation, is well calculated to produce this ruinous 
eliecf, ' 



See Mem. of the Philad. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. page 122. f Wem, page 128 



CHAPTER Xlll. 



I'he practice of ploughing from and to plants considered, and its injurious ef- 
fects explained. The expanding force of fermentation cannot be power- 
ful where a sufficiency of animal or vegetable matter does not obtain. 
Of the marked fertility ai-ising from ploughing in buckwheat, or turning 
up a clover lay from a wheat crop. The depth of ploughing should be in 
proportion to the animal and vegetable matter contained in the soil. 

X LouGHiNG from and to fallow plants has been highly recom- 
mended, by gentlemen of the first agricultural talent. It is said to 
be still extensively practised in England, by the most enlightened 
agriculturists in that country. Names may, and too often have, the 
power to sanction and perpetuate error. They cannot, however, 
change the nature of things, or make any practice right, if it be op- 
posed to nature and common sense. 

Doctor Anderson advocated this practice, and furnished an en- 
graving of the lines, by which this mode of cultivation might be ex- 
ecuted in the most ingenious way. His plan turns the soil to the 
plants on one side of each row, and from tliem, on the other side of 
it. As the ploughing is reversed, every time the crop is cultivated, 
the roots of the plants are alternately cut oft*, and left exposed on 
one side of the row; they are by this means always covered, on 
one or the other side of each row, therefore, this gentleman's prac- 
tice is not quite as much opposed to nature and reason, as Mr. 
Bordley's. He recommended ploughing from the plants, on both 
sides of the rows, in the same cultivation. This gentleman says, 
" observing much irregularity in the standing of maize in rows, I 
caused the seed to be placed close to the land side of the furrows ; 
the maize thus grew very straight in lines, and admitted the plough 
to pass near the plants. These being up, and a little grown, the de- 
sign was formed of directing the finger like roots to dip deeper than 
common before the lateral roots should strike out. The soil was 
ploughed five inches deep, and turned at the first ploughing from 
the maize, on both sides of the plants : but they then being young, 
it was necessary to leave more shoulder or bed to them than was 
desired, to avoid burying them with the earth falling back; there- 
fore, the plough, on having worked through the field, immediately 
returned to the place where it began to plough from the plants, 
and it now took off" as much more earth, still turning it from them, 
on each side, as they could well bear without danger of tottering." 
This is a tedious piece of business, as are most otlier things opposed 
to the economy of nature, and to common sense. But to proceed, 
" All now rested ten or twelve days, even in the driest weather, 

U 



154 

with intention that the lateral roots should take their direction 
under the artificial surface of the ground formed by the plough- 
share. The ploughs next turned a furrow, on each side of the 
rows, to the plants, through the whole field ; and then ploughed 
through the balks, or the whole of the intervals not before plough- 
ed ; and so repeatedly continued to plough through the intervals 
from and to the plants. The alternate ploughings from and to 
were continued, even during the forming and filling of the grain, 
and it was continual work for the ploughs, in which the ploughshare 
passed rather over the roots, which spread and ran deeper than if 
they had taken their first start under the common surface of the 
earth, and therefore they were not torn up, or the plants fired or 
checked in their growth."* 

Mr. Bordley ploughed from each side of the rows of the plants 
five inches deep, while the plants are young ; he then let them rest 
ten or twelve days on the narrow ridges formed by this practice ; 
this was done, that " the lateral roots should take their direction 
under the artificial surface of the ground formed by the plough- 
share. If the corn plant, when scarcely three inches high, be pulled 
up by the roots from an open free soil, the lateral roots will be 
found about twelve inches long, beside what remains in the ground ; 
consequently these roots are cut off on each side of the rows, even 
by the first cultivation, while the plant is yet very young; they are 
also cut off by every succeeding cultivation. If the furrows made 
along each side of the rows, by the first cultivation, were kept con- 
tinually open, and the lateral roots of the plants compelled by this 
means to cross the bottom of them, a little within the ground, this 
would not cause the roots to grow under the artificial surface of the 
ground formed by the ploughshare." Nature immediately after 
they passed the open furrow, would direct them up into the soil 
above, to take their natural range through it : especially in that 
part of it, where the most genial heat and nutriment obtained. This 
is clearly seen when the lateral roots of trees cross ditches, or even 
deep gullies, at the bottom of them, a little within the ground. 
They immediately mount upward after they have crossed the bot- 
tom of the ditch, and take their natural growth at the same dis- 
tance from the surface of the soil, as would have happened, if 
they had met with no obstacles in getting into it. 

The roots of the corn plant which proceed downward from the 
stalk, also those that take their course along the rows, are not in- 
jured ; neither are all those \yhich grow the deepest within the soil 
in the intervals cut off. Therefore as the corn plant is very hardy, 
it is supported by these roots, until nature repairs the damage done 
by this truly inconsiderate and barbarian practice. It is of con- 
sequence by no means wonderful, that Mr. Bordley, who was in 
many respects a judicious farmer, should by his general good ma- 
nagement, so far counteract the evils arising from this savage prac- 

* See his book on Husbandry, pages 101, 102, 103. 



155 

lice, as to grow, under all the disadvantages resulting from it, crops 
that were more than equal to the general crops of his neighbours. 
Reason, however, as well as practice, determines that crops obtained 
in this way must fall very far short of those that may be obtained 
from a rational system of management. It is also obvious, that his 
mode of cultivation is well calculated to cause an extensive, use- 
less waste of the animal and vegetable matter contained in the soil. 
Likewise of the farmyard manure, if that be applied for the growth 
of the crop. 

Respect for Mr. Bordley's opinion induced me to try his prac- 
tice. The cutting of the roots of plants, (as might and ought to 
have been expected,) is very injurious to the crop ; the more so, as 
it exposes that part of them which remains attached to the stalk, to 
the injurious effects of the sun and air, admitted by leaving the fur- 
rows next to the plants open. Fermentation is also much checked, 
by frequently turning up the soil, and admitting too much air; 
and the decomposed matter arising from it is subjected to the use- 
less waste that has been before described. 

The undecayed vegetable substances are dragged up by the har- 
row into heaps, where they perish on the surface of the soil, and do 
but little good to it. 

Reason, if it had been properly consulted, would have been suffi- 
cient to convince me, that cutting the roots of plants, was in 
itself an irrational practice; still I tried Doctor Anderson's mode 
of cultivation ; this cuts the roots, also leaves them, either on one or 
the other side of the rows, exposed to the injurious eftects of the sun 
and air, until he tells us the plants ought to be earthed up. How- 
ever, one trial of this very plausible, pulverising system, (perhaps 
formed in the Doctor's closet, was sufficient to convince me, that 
the roots of plants ought not to be cut in any way, even while they 
were young : also, that it was irrational to turn the earth away from 
them, especially as nature had constructed them to grow in it. 

Some cultivators, in order to make the soil open and mellow, 
turn it from the plants into the first cultivation, but after harrowing 
well, turn it immediately back to them, least injury might be done 
by leaving the roots exposed. This is a more rational practice 
than either of those just mentioned, but it is laborious and also im- 
posing. The open texture of the soil is obtained at the expense of 
the roots of the plants and the useless waste of the animal and ve- 
getable matter contained in it. As fermentation is greatly checked 
by this practice, the soil (unless it be sandy or very rich,) settles, 
and becomes harder than it would have been, if the grounds had 
not been so carefully pulverised; especially if heavy rains follow 
this inconsiderate and laborious practice. 

It should, however, be recollected that the powerfully expanding 
force of fermentation, cannot exist in a soil where perpetual plough- 
ing and cropping has destroyed too much of the animal and vege- 
table matter that had formerly existed in it. In this case a suffi- 
ciency of vegetation ought to be introduced, by red clover and the 



156 

use of gypsum. Or if the grounds have been so often excited by 
that substance that it will no longer cause good crops of this grass 
to grow on them, without the aid of enriching manure, such other 
plants as the soil will grow, should be cultivated and ploughed un- 
der for manure. When as much vegetation is procured from an ex- 
hausted soil as it is capable of producing, and also as much animal 
matter as may be obtained from the cattle grazed on it, and the ani- 
malcula which are fed and sheltered by it, the next thing to be con- 
sidered is, how this scanty product may be most advantageously 
used, and with the least possible expense. The quantity of inert 
earth is often very great in proportion to the animal and vegetable 
matter derived from the green crop grown on it : therefore but little 
comparative good is to be expected, unless this manure be so applied 
and ordered, that the whole expanding force and enriching matter 
contained in it, be expanded within the soil to the best advantage. 
However, if this be done, the benefit derived from it will be found 
much greater, than has been commonly obtained from ploughing 
green crops under the soil, for the growth of fallow crops. 

To illustrate this I will agiin refer to buckwheat. That plant is 
too often threshed on the field where it grew, and the straw left in 
large heaps to perish, with but little ultimate use to the cultivator. 
We may observe, after the straw has been decomposed, that the 
remaining matter is very little, when compared with the original 
bulk of the heaps. This together with the evident texture of the 
straw, seems to determine that water forms a very considerable pro- 
portion of the plant. It of consequence contains much less nutri- 
tive matter, than most of the plants ploughed under the soil for ma- 
nure. It has, however, notwithstanding this, been ploughed under 
with very great success, for a wheat crop; especially in England. 
Now we all know that although the wheat will stubble, fall, and be- 
come unproductive, when too much manure is applied for the crops, 
still much nutriment is required to grow a good crop of that grain. 
Why then does a crop of buckwheat ploughed under the soil supply 
sufficient nutriment to effect this purpose, when it clearly appears 
to furnish but little nutritive matter for the growth of plants ? The 
reason is obvious, and the principle highly important to the interests 
of agriculture, if farmers would make a general and proper applica- 
tion of it. After the buckwheat is ploughed under the soil, it re- 
mains undisturbed by folly, and the injurious and very expensive 
labour too generally used when fallow crops are cultivated : conse- 
quently fermentation keeps th.e soil open and mellow for the roots 
of the plants, and decomposition supplies them with nutriment. As 
none of the enriching and fertilizing matter, arising from the decom- 
position of the green crop, is uselessly wasted in the way that has 
been described, the product is as abundant as could be rationally 
expected from the properties of the manure. It therefore seems, 
that quite as much, (if not more) depends on the proper use of ma- 
nure, as on the quality or quantity applied; especially as we all 
know that a clover lay is an excellent preparation for wheat. If 



157 

ilie ground be well stored with the roots of this plant, the crop sel- 
dom fails to be productive, even when the soil is thin, provided the 
seed for the grain crop be sown on one ploughing. On the contrary, 
if the lay be prepared by repeated ploughings, the crop is seldom 
good, unless the soil be rich enough to supply the great loss sus- 
tained in consequence of exposing the enriching and fertilizing mat- 
ter contained in the clover roots to useless waste. This fact has 
been often and well confirmed, by sowing one part of the same clo- 
ver lay on one ploughing, and the other part after the grounds had 
been oftener ploughed. Although the cause of this marked differ- 
ence ought to be known, it certainly has not been sufficiently con- 
sidered : especially in the different application of clover and other 
grass lays, or a more general and far better application and cvil- 
tivation of them would have been adopted. Gypsum, even when the 
soil is very thin, causes the clover to grow luxuriantly. The tops 
we know to be very nutritive, and have every reason to believe that 
the roots are not less so, as far as the food for plants may be con- 
cerned. When the clover has not been injured by being too fre- 
quently mown or closely pastured, the interior of the soil is well 
filled with its roots, and the surface of the ground is as regularly 
covered with the tops of the plant. As it cannot (like the spear- 
grasses,) live after its roots have been reversed by the plough, a 
general fermentation quickly takes place; and as this is not checked 
when small grain is sown on one ploughing, the crop is generally 
as good as might be expected fiiom this judicious and of course ra- 
tional practice. 

Why then should we spend so iDUch money in useless and very 
injurious labour, when it is evident, so far as the practice has been 
generally tried, that if we place the necessary materials properly 
within the soil, and subdue the grasses and weeds on the surface of 
it, by the very easy and effectual means that have been described, 
nature will keep the interior of the soil more open and mellow, for 
the growth of the plants, than can be done by us with the plough ? 
It should be also recollected, that by the use of this instrument, we 
cut and rend the roots of the plants, and by turning up the nutri- 
tive matter, expose it to much useless waste. 

It is, however, considered proper to remark, that notwithstanding 
it clearly appears from the practice of turning a clover lay, and 
ploughing in buckwheat for a crop of small grain, that but little 
nutriment will produce surprising effects when it is properly order- 
ed, still the amount of the green crop ought to be sufficient to keep 
the earth open and mellow. This being the case, it is evident that 
a thin soil should not be ploughed deep, when the vegetation is 
turned under it, \inless a sufficiency of farm yard, or other enrich- 
ing manure, be added, to keep the soil open and mellow, or the 
ground, below the usual depth of ploughing, is found to be richer 
than the soil which has heretofore been employed. This last I have 
never seen, neither can it happen, except in soils originally very 
deep, but so long ploughed and severely cropped, that the upper 



158 

part of them has been exhausted. The idea of bettering or enrich- 
ing poor soils generally, by deep ploughing, and exposing the inert 
earth to the enriching influence of the atmosphere, is certainly very 
erroneous. 

The poor inert earth, thus exposed, will imbibe some enriching 
matter from this source : still, it will be much less than if the 
grounds had not been deeply ploughed. Such a large body of inert 
matter cannot be kept open and mellow by the fermentation of the 
green crop grown on the grounds. Covering this vegetation so 
deeply under the thin soil and inert earth, will greatly retard the 
fermentation of it. It is evident that plants grown on this bulky 
and inactive mass of matter, cannot be sufliciently luxuriant, either 
to gather, or secure by their shade, any thing like as much nutri- 
ment from the atmosphere, as would be obtained from it if the 
depth of the ploughing were calculated to suit the depth of the soil. 
In the latter case, the quantity of inert earth would be so much 
less, that the fermentation of the green crop woulFl be sufficient to 
keep the soil open and mellow. The roots of the plants will also 
soon penetrate the decaying sod, where they will find sufficient nu- 
triment to cause them to grow as luxuriantly, as might be reasonably 
expected from the means employed. Healthy, vigorous plants re- 
quire and obtain much more nutriment from the atmosphere than 
feeble ones. They also far better defend, by their more extensive 
shade, the enriching matter that has been deposited on the soil, in 
the way that has been before described. The better crops will also 
furnish much more olFal vegetation for litter. The grasses follow- 
ing them will be much more luxuriant : consequently, the shallow 
ploughing will return much more enriching matter to the soil. This 
will enable the cultivator to plough something deeper at the com- 
mencement of every succeeding round of crops, until any reasona- 
ble depth of ploughing may be performed, without doing injury 
cither to the crops or the soil. 

Some gentlemen urge, that turning up the inert earth by trench 
ploughing ameliorates it. They ought, however, to have considered, 
before they recommended this very injurious practice, that this ame- 
lioration is principally effected at the expense of the enriching mat- 
ter contained in the soil above. By ploughing and harrowing it is al- 
ways more or less mixed with the poor earth turned up from below 
it. This spreads the fertilizing matter contained in the soil thinner, 
or wider apart: consequently, causes fermentation and decompo- 
sition to act much more feebly, and to progress much slower than 
if this matter lay closer together. 

Mr. Bordley says, he has " stripped the blades and cut off the 
tops when the corn was nearly soft enough for roasting ears;" 
and that " no difference was observed between this and the rest."* 
If this gentleman had measured the product, he would have seen 
a marked difference. 

* See his book on Husbandry. 



159 

It was discovered early in August, 1810, that proper grasses for 
soiling my cattle would soon be very deficient; and on the 20th of 
that month one row of corn, in a field of thirteen acres, was topped, 
to ascertain how the plant would bear early cutting. It was thought 
that it had received no injury. On the 31st of the same month I 
commenced feeding the cattle with the tops cut daily, as wanted. 
These lasted them until the 18th of September. After this the 
blades were stripped, commencing where the topping began. They 
fed the cattle until the 5th of October. 

In the process of topping and blading, one row was left entire, 
standing between the row which had been topped on the 20th of 
August, and another row that was topped on the 2d of September. 
These three rows were cut off by the roots on the 2d of October, 
and hauled in and set up separately under my own inspection. They 
were husked and measured on the 8th of November. 

Produce of the row that had not been topped and stripped, nine 
bushels and five-eighths of corn in the ear. 

One of the rows which had been topped and stripped, measured 
seven bushels and six- eighths ; and the other topped and stripped 
row measured seven bushels and three-eighths of corn in the ear. 

Thus it clearly appears that mutilating the corn plant before its 
fruit is perfected, is a very injurious practice. The injury done to 
my crop by this mode of management was clearly seen some time 
before the three experimental rows were cut off. Throughout the 
whole field the husks were generally dry and open, except on the 
row which had not been topped and stripped. On this, they still 
retained a greenish hue, and were close set to the ear when the 
plants were cut off by the roots. 

In 1811 I selected three rows of maize in the middle of my field, 
as nearly alike as possible. The plants were then about two feet 
high. I cut off the tops of the middle row as low down as might 
be readily done without injuring the tassels, which were wrapped 
in their own leaves within the stalks. 1 could not observe that the 
stalks, in the row which had been cut, grew any thicker, until new 
leaves had been formed from the crown of the plants. Before this 
happened, the stalks in the rows on either side of it, seemed to be 
as thick again as those standing in it; and the ears grown on the 
plants in this row shot, filled, and ripened, about two weeks later 
than the rest of the field. 

As several writers on agriculture had asserted that the tops of 
potatoes might be cut and given to the cattle, without injury to the 
crop, I cut off the tops from a row running through the middle of 
a very luxuriant patch. Care was taken to cut them in that way 
which was supposed least likely to prove injurious to the future 
growth of the plants. The debilitated appearance of the second 
growth of the tops, determined me not to risk a second cutting of 
them. When the crop was gathered, the roots in the row that had 
been cut did not seem to be more than half as large as those in the 
rest of the patch. 



160 

In fact, I have never seen any advantage arise, either from 
carefully trimming, or ruggedly mutilating, annual plants ; on the 
contrary, much injury certainly follows. It is, however, probable, 
that good housewives and ignorant gardeners will continue to tread 
and mutilate the tops of their onions, as long as the world may 
happen to last, for the express purpose of making the roots grow 
much more luxuriantly ; unless, perchance, they may happen to re- 
flect, that the tops would not have existed, if nature did not con- 
sider them as necessary to the well being of the plant as its roots. 
Certain it is, that the writings of many gentlemen, who ought to 
have known better, are exactly calculated to confirm them in this 
truly savage practice. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



\"ci'y luxuriant crops too seldom determine good management. The error ot 
too close planting' exposed. Ridges produce artificial di'ought. The evils 
arising from old grass grounds pointed out. Many and highly important 
advantages are to be obtained by sowing grass seed separately. The plough, 
in the hands of the inconsiderate cultivator, speedily exhausts the soil. 
\Vhen this instrument is propei'ly used, it greatly hastens the improvement 
of it. Convertible husbandry is the most profitable practice, where popu- 
lation and capital prevail. A more extensive attention to grass and rearing 
live stock suits oui- back-woods settlements best. 

-As the glare of large crops frequently misleads, and induces too 
many cultivators to adopt bad practices, it may be proper to show, 
that great product is so far from being always the result of an en- 
lightened practice, that it has been often obtained when the ma- 
nagement has been excessively bad. 

Sir. Stevens's wager crop of one hundred and eighteen bushels of 
corn to the acre, published in the Domestic Encyclopaedia, is the 
largest product that I have noticed. He introduced 26,880 plants 
to the acre, in double rows, with intervals of five feet six inches : 
this is fifty-six plants in the length of one perch along the rows. 
A large ear, shells one pint of corn ; moderate sized ears will mea- 
sure more than half a pint. If each plant in this gentleman's field 
had produced only half a pint of shelled corn, his crop would have 
yielded about two hundred bushels to the acre : consequently the 
number of the plants greatly injured the product of it. There 
can be but little doubt, that if Mr. Stevens had suffered only thirty- 
tliree plants to stand in the length of one perch on the rows, that 
his soil, heavy manuring, and attentive cultivation, would have 
grown a much larger crop of corn. For my crop of corn grown in 
1815, (the cultivation of whicli will be hereafter described,) shows 
that his intervals were well calculated to favour the prosperity of 
the plants. 

The eft'ect of too thick planting in the rows, was clearly seen in 
my crop of ninety-one bushels to the acre, grown in 1811. This 
was grown in double rows, on ridges, half a perch asunder, planted 
triangularly, as was my crop of 1810, which will be next described. 
The number of plants, about 20,000 to the acre, or sixty-two plants 
in the length of one perch along the rows, was quite too many. 
Although the intervals were wide, they seemed filled by the plants 
that leaned out into them ; and those plants whose tops got under- 
most were so much shaded, that they became entirely barren ; and 



162 

those that predominated, had the shortest ears which I had ever 
grown before. Still, the product was greater than that of any 
crop of maize grown by me. If the intervals had been narrower, 
and much fewer plants suffered to grow in the rows, no question 
but the crop would have been much more productive : for the soil 
was generally good, and the manuring sufficient to grow a much 
larger crop of corn, if the plants had been reduced in number, 
and better arranged on the ground. 

I planted, in the spring of 1810, thirteen acres in corn and po- 
tatoes, the former on five feet and a half ridges, two rows on each 
ridge, intended to be twelve inches apart along the rows, and the 
same distance triangularly across them; but by a mistake in the 
construction of the indenting roller, formed to make holes for plant- 
ing the seed, the distance along the rows turned out to be about 
fourteen inches. The holes for planting were sunk two inches and 
a half deep. It was intended that two plants should be left in 
each cluster; but as the holes were sunk entirely too deep, much 
of the planting failed. The field was replanted ; but this, (as com- 
monly happens, when, the plants stand thick on the ground,) did 
more harm than good. Between the corn ridges were planted, on 
beds five feet six inches wide, two double rows of potatoes ; vacancy 
between them, two feet two inches ; the double rows were designed 
to be eight inches apart, straight, and triangular, like the double 
rows of corn ; this left ten feet four inches between the double 
rows of corn for the sun and air. It was found, however, that a 
mistake had been also made in the construction of the indenting 
roller, formed for making holes for the potato sets, and that these 
holes were nine, in place of being eight inches apart along the 
rows. They were sunk only one inch and three-quarters deep ; 
this was not half deep enough, and the crop suffered greatly in 
consequence of this very inconsiderate arrangement : also quite as 
much, or possibly more, from the plants standing entirely too thick 
on the ground. If single, in place of double, rows, had been plant- 
ed, the product would have been considerably increased, and half 
the seed saved. The failure in the corn plants was considered 
injurious to the crop. I have, however, since been clearly con- 
vinced, that it was very advantageous to it, and would have been 
more so, if replanting had been omitted, except where none of the 
original planting succeeded, within the distance of six or more 
feet in the rows. 

Still the produce was eight hundred and seventeen bushels of 
shelled corn, and one thousand seven hundred and thirty bushels 
of potatoes. This forms an average of two hundred and sixty-three 
bushels of potatoes, and one hundred and twenty-four bushels of 
shelled corn per acre, if I may be permitted to assign to each the 
ground they occupied. 

My mixed crop of corn and potatoes, grown in 1810, did not 
discover the impropriety of close planting in the rows, as the failure 
in the corn plants reduced their number very considerably. But 



163 

my mixed crop of maize and barley, grown in 1811, clearly pointed 
out the error of too many corn plants. 

The barley was sown at the rate of three bushels to the acre on 
six feet beds between the ridges formed for the corn ; which were 
also of the same width. The produce in barley at the rate of thirty- 
six bushels to the acre, measuring only the beds on which the barley 
grew ; and that of the corn when shelled at the rate of one hundred 
and thirty-eight and a half bushels to the acre, measuring only the 
ridges occupied by it. 

The corn certainly stood much too thick on the ground. There 
were about sixty-four plants within the length of one perch, planted 
triangularly in double rows in the same way as the corn was planted 
in 1810. Many of the plants were entirely barren, nubbins nume- 
rous, and the ears generally very short and badly filled : still one of 
the best ridges, husked and shelled under my own inspection, mea- 
sured at the rate of one hundred and fifty-two and a half bushels to 
the acre ; and another ridge ordered in the same way, measured at 
the rate of one hundred and forty-nine and a half bushels. Yet it 
was clear to me, that if half the plants had been removed, so soon as 
danger from grubs, &c. had passed by, much more corn would have 
been obtained. 

What might have happened if the soil had not been too generally 
very thin, previously to the manuring it for the mixed crop, or a suf- 
ficiency of dung had been introduced to supply the defect, I cannot 
determine; but where the soil was good, evident marks of the in- 
judicious practice of close hedge-row planting appeared. 

Accident in my mixed crop of 1809, led me to expect considera- 
ble advantage from ridging for corn. I have, however, since found 
that it was an increased quantity of soil and manure introduced by 
the ploughing, that rendered the plants on the ridges, which had been 
accidentally formed, much better than the rest of the field ; and not 
as was believed, the concentrating a double quantity of soil and 
manure immediately under them. Also, tliat ridges, unless the sea- 
sons are uncommonly dripping, are very injurious. They produce 
artificial droughts, by too speedily running oiF the rains into the 
cleaning out furrows, through which the water too quickly passes 
oft" from the field : consequently, the interior of the soil is very often 
found dry, immediately after sufficient rain had fallen to water the 
soil plentifully, if it had not been run olfby the ridges and furrows. 
Ridging up, and too close planting, were not, however, all the evils 
to which ray ill fated crops were exposed. The roots of the plants 
were also cut off and mangled ; the manure, together with the roots 
of the grass, exposed to useless waste, by the inconsiderate and sa- 
vage practice of cultivating the corn and potatoes with the plough. 
The investigation of the ordering of these crops, clearly demon- 
strates, that large product does not always determine judicious ma- 
nagement. Also, that if cultivators would carefully observe the 
progress of their crops, and candidly publish their errors, with the 
publication of the management and result j those errors, instead of 



164 

being cojyied, and perpetuated by others, Avould be avoided, and the 
knowledge of agriculture greatly increavSed. 

Slovens seldom injure agriculture further than their own practice 
extends. Those who wish to improve do not imitate them, unless 
perchance they actually discover something that is interesting in 
their mode of management. But enterprising cultivators, who pos- 
sess sufficient capital to favour their plans, frequently grow pro- 
ductive crops, when that part of their practice which is considered 
most interesting by them, is not only bad, but also extensively in- 
jurious. When their crops are published, farmers who wish to im- 
prove, too generally believe, (without sufficient investigation,) that 
the successful means employed in the growth of them, must be the 
best that can be used to obtain the same end. And as new practices 
and new seeds are commonly favoured with the best soil and culti- 
vation, they become popular, and too frequently circulate exten- 
sively to the great injury of agriculture. 

The next and last erroneous practice to be at this time considered, 
and contrasted with a better mode of management, is an increasing 
partiality for old grass grounds. 

The extensive improvements in the agriculture of Great Britain, 
have excited our attention ; but they have also induced us to adopt 
too many of their errors in practice. Among which we may include 
an improper estimation of the value of old grass grounds. I shall 
therefore endeavour to point out the mischief arising from this in- 
considerate practice. Perhaps this cannot be better done, than by 
showing that old grass grounds are contrary to the interest of that 
country, where they often continue for ages unploughed. 

The great advantage which the agriculture of Great Britain de- 
rives from an attention to grass, has been too generally attributed 
to their superior raanageirient of the grasses ; when, in fact, the 
produce and profit of their crops are greatly diminished, in con- 
sequence of the very improper management of their grass grounds. 
Their grain and other cultivated crops are also vastly deficient from 
the same cause. 

When Britons became agriculturists, the grasses which had sup- 
plied their cattle while they were shepherds were ploughed in pro- 
portion to the extent of their cultivation, until it became necessary 
ior art to assist nature in the multiplication of their grass grounds. 
It is probable that at this time they introduced the injudicious prac- 
tice of forming grass grounds from seeds indiscriminately gathered 
from haylofts, without reflecting that, by this means, they intro- 
duced late and early, good and worthless plants, with all the inter- 
mediate qualities between those wide extremes, together with in- 
numerable weeds. If it were not that we daily see practices equally 
absurd and injudicious, advocated by gentlemen of talents and en- 
terprise, it would seem strange that the present enlightened agri- 
culturists of that country should still persist Tn the. same mode, or 
with but little deviation from it; although they are frequently dis- 
appointed in accomplishing their object. It often happens that after 



165 

much labour has been expended, and the income from their grounds 
either lost or greatly curtailed, they are at last indebted to nature, 
aided by expensive extra manuriugs, to cover their grounds with 
grasses. 

The agriculture of Pennsylvania is inferior to that of Great Bri- 
tain, yet there are improvements in this country worthy of more 
attention from Englishmen than has been given to them. Our far- 
mers select their grass seeds from the most approved plants ; no 
unknown mixtures are admitted, (except by slovens ;) they are 
gathered, threshed, cleaned, and kept separate. By this means we 
are in possession of the best plants that have claimed our attention. 
We might also have known the relative value of each for the diffe- 
rent purposes for which they are used. This has, however, been 
neglected, although it is probable that if it were known, half the 
ground which is at this time found necessary to fatten an ox would 
effect that purpose. 

It would seem that nothing can exceed the fascinating power of 
public opinion to perpetuate error, and often to carry it to a ludi- 
crous extent. This is evinced in the attachment that English far- 
mers have for old grass grounds. Some gentlemen there, disap- 
pointed in obtaining such as would meet their approbation, have 
encountered the enormous expense of paring sods from lanes, high- 
ways, &c. and covering their fields with them. Although this ex- 
pense was but a part ot the evil introduced by this irrational prac- 
tice, as sods, procured in this way, must be well stored with weeds. 
However, these may be pulled up by the roots, when money 
is so plenty as to enable the cultivator to form grass grounds with 
sods. 

Other gentlemen in England are so infatuated with the ideal value 
of old grass grounds, that they will not suffer them to be subjected 
to a rational cultivation when overrun with moss, and other worth- 
less vegetation. Although several of their enterprising countrymen 
have effected astonishing improvements in grounds of this descrip- 
tion, in a very short time, by subjecting them to the plough, and 
returning them again to grass. 

The plough, in the hands of an inconsiderate farmer, may be 
justly considered an instrument of certain and speedy destruction. 
It not only excites the soil to fertility, but also, by being improperly 
used, turns up and exposes the animal and vegetable matter con- 
tained in it to much useless waste ; and as little, if any thing, is 
returned by such cultivators to the soil, the loss of the nutriment 
necessary for the growth of the crops, together with the useless 
waste introduced by a bad system of husbandry, very rapidly ex- 
hausts and impoverishes the grounds. 

Still, when the plough is properly used, it is the only means bv 
which a speedy improvement can be made, without the aid of extra- 
neous enriching manure. The cause is evident ; for when the soil 
is properly cultivated, the plants are as healthy and vigorous as it 
is capable of producing. This enables their roots to dip deep, and 



166 

spread wide through it, in search of nutriment. The tops of the 
plants are also increased in proportion to the vigour of their roots, 
which calculates them to gather much food from the atmosphere. 
Also, to shield, by their extensive shade, the rich, fertilizing mat- 
ter deposited by it on the surface of the soil : consequently, the 
vegetation is greatly increased, and that part of it which the far- 
mer can readily spare, will, when it is judiciously returned to the 
land, effect an improvement far exceeding the calculation of those 
who have not carefully investigated this very interesting subject. 

Why, then, should the enlightened and enterprising cultivators 
of England dread the effects of the plough ? It should be laid 
down as a maxim in farming, that no grounds ought to be continued 
in grass until they become hard bound, or consolidated, and the 
roots become old, debilitated, and matted. Also, that a stop should 
be put to the plough before decaying animal and vegetable matter 
has been too much reduced to grow luxuriant crops of the grasses. 
Great crops of grass can be no longer expected than while the soil 
continues free and open, and the roots remain unimpaired. Neither 
can superior grain crops be obtained after decaying animal and 
vegetable matter ceases to expand, open, divide, and enrich the 
soil. 

Rich grass grounds in the vicinities of cities and towns, where 
there is a demand for hay, and enriching manure can be readi- 
ly procured, may be profitable as they are now managed. Still, 
if one-fifth of those grounds were, in regular rotation, annually cul- 
tivated in fallow crops, to be followed by wheat or other small 
grain, the remaining three-fifths will produce more hay and pasture 
than the whole, as now managed. Also, a sufficiency of manure to 
insure a progressive improvement of the soil, provided the cultiva- 
tion and management be good. 

It is wonderful that the surprising improvements effected in grass 
grounds comparatively worthless, have not long since introduced 
in England the proper management of grass grounds in general ; 
especially as many of them are too thin to produce profitable 
grasses. The proper cultivation of grass grounds, with the same 
manure as is expended on them in top dressing, (or at most, a small 
additional quantity,) would procure as much, or more, and far bet- 
ter grasses, than can be obtained from the same grounds by the 
present mode of management : also, with the additional advantage 
of luxuriant fallow and small grain crops, in regular succession ; 
provided the grounds were subjected to a proper system of con- 
vertible husbandry. They have been consolidated by time and the 
hoofs of the cattle, and are closely matted and hard bound by the 
innumerable roots of the grasses and weeds ; many of the former 
are enfeebled by age, and multitudes hastening into decay. This, 
with a great variety of useless, as well as very injurious plants, 
forms a surface on which may be found the best and worst of plants, 
together with all the intermediate grades between those wide ex- 
tremes. These spring in regular succession from early to late. 



167 

Those evils are the natural consequences of procuring seed from 
haylofts : also, of age, which gives time for the native grasses and 
weeds to root out the better vegetation: particularly if the latter 
does not happen to be equally hardy and congenial with the soil 
and climate ; and this seldom occurs, as too little attention is given 
to procure such as suit either. 

Besides the expense which frequently attends the extirpatino- 
those hardy weeds, destroying moss, ant hills, &c. by manual la- 
bour, would go far towards cultivating the soil. 

When English farmers save their seed separately, they too gene- 
rally sow a variety of them on the same ground. Wf, also, too 
often do the same thing, from a mistaken idea that more grass will 
be mown. It seems, however, that they in general form these mix- 
tures, that the grasses may spring in due succession for grazing, al- 
though none of those gentlemen would hire a double set of labourers, 
that one set might sleep while the other was working. This would 
be considered an expensive arrangement : so are the sleeping grasses 
if rent be taxed on the soil occupied by them during their inactivity. 
Why then resort to this irrational practice ? Is there not a suf- 
ficiency of grasses that spring very early, and will when they are 
either pastured or mowed, grow luxuriantly until vegetation is locked 
up by frost .^ No question but there are among those kinds, such 
grasses as are very nutritive. These plants, while young and vi- 
gorous, and at the same time growing on an open and free soil, 
which is unincumbered by debilitated and decaying grasses, or hardy 
weeds, are unquestionably capable of producing much more and far 
better grass than could be procured from old grass grounds, labour- 
ing under every disadvantage but poverty. Provided the seed for 
the young grasses are sown sufficiently thick to produce as many 
plants as the soil is capable of perfecting, and such mixtures be 
avoided as would materially interfere with each other. When, how- 
ever, it is considered that few plants ripen exactly at the same time, 
or maintain the same height, and that the broader spreading foliage 
of some of them, is injurious to those of a contrary description, it is 
probable that mixtures of eve^y kind should be avoided ; especially 
as the comparative valui of the different grasses, is only to be 
known by growing them separately. 

The properties of the grasses ought to be congenial to the soil 
and climate. If this be particularly attended to, the farmer will be 
seldom disappointed in a great sufficiency of plants to grow luxuri- 
ant crops. The principal cause of so many disappointments in pro- 
curing well set grass grounds, is either too little seed, or the intro- 
duction of such as are incompatible with the soil or climate. ■ 

Incalculable advantages may be obtained from sowing grass seeds 
separately. This will clearly point out the grasses best suited to 
our soil and climate. If such only were sown, they would generally 
prosper, and produce the greatest crops that the soil and climate 
were capable of perfecting. Instead of this, so soon as any plant 
becomes conspicuous for its valuable properties, it is forced into 



168 

every soil and climate, without duly considering that but few it' any 
-plants are calculated to produce luxuriant crops every where. This 
seems to be the principle reason why we so often hear some culti- 
vators extolling certain grasses while others say they are worthless. 

By sowing grass seeds separately, we may discover those pos- 
sessing peculiar properties for fattening cattle, and such as are the 
most proper for the different varieties of domesticated aniitials: 
also those best calculated to produce the largest quantity of the 
most nutritious hay, and such as would communicate the best flavour 
to butter and cheese, and at the same time form the most luxuriant 
and profitable pastures. In fact from this only rationaii practice, 
we may gain as intimate a knowledge of the different grasses, as of 
the grain and roots grown by us. 

In our back countries the population is thin, and we generally 
have an extensive range for live stock during the summer, outside 
of our cleared grounds. 

The navigation of too many of our rivers and creeks remains ob- 
structed ; the roads also are too generally neglected : therefore, it 
will be found an excellent practice in the back-woods, to multiply 
the grasses considerably beyond the quantity necessary for a regular 
convertible husbandry; and to rear live stock, until population be- 
comes thicker, and those obstacles to a vent for our produce be ge- 
nerally removed ; or manufactures be established in sufficient num- 
ber to open a ready market for it. 

But where population is thick, labour easily obtained, and a ready 
market for produce generally prevails, convertible husbandry will be 
found much more profitable. The grasses arising from this practice 
will be found fully sufficient to keep a stock of cattle equal to the de- 
mand for manure. The offal vegetation from the cultivated crops, 
together with such other vegetation as may be gathered, will with 
proper management, supply an abundance of litter. 

In England a convertible husbandry would be still much more 
profitable than in this country, where a large surplus of grain for ex- 
portation generally prevails, and the least apprehension of a general 
scarcity of bread never occurs ; unles§ it is feared that the high price 
abroad, may induce our merchants to export it in such quantities as 
to introduce a scarcity here. This evil, however, has not yet hap- 
pened ; but as it may very readily occur, the subject is an interest- 
ing one, and seems to demand more attention than has been given 
to it ; especially when a serious failure in our crops takes place at 
a time when the same has generally occurred in Europe. This seems 
to have been the case of the present year, 1816.* 

But to return. The thick set population of Britain and the ex- 
tensive capital of her farmers, would certainly render the practice 
of convertible husbandry exceedingly lucrative to the cultivator, 

• When this was written, the complaints of scarcity had excited alarm, for 
which no real cause generally existed, or so much provision could not have 
been exported from this country without injurious effects. 



169 

and equally beneficial to the nation. If it were generally adopted, 
those frequent and very distressing apprehensions of a scarcity 
of bread, could not in the general course of events occur, until 
population had greatly increased. 

Some gentlemen in England practice a convertible husbandry, 
especially in Norfolk. Their fallow crops, however, seem to be 
seldom if overgrown on grass lays, although they are well aware 
of the great value of a clover lay, (or a mixture of other grasses 
with it,) for wheat. 



Y 



CHAPTER XV. 



Fallow crops should be grown on grass lays. The speyjgrasses are best for 
this purpose. A red clover lay is best for small grain. 'I^e texture of any soil 
is most advantageously altered by the roots and tops of the grasses, properly 
applied and ordered. The judicious application of this vegetation, will often 
supercede the necessity of ridging and under draining. How ridges should 
be formed and cultivated in retentive soils. The injury done by hilling, 
ridging, and moulding up plants is explained, as are also the advantages de- 
rived from a level and very superficial cultivation. It is shown that altering 
the present general practice of husbandry, so that every fallow crop may be 
superficially cultivated, can be readily done. Observations on preparing 
the soil for small grain, when it ought not, or cannot, be conveniently done 
by a fiillow crop. 

JVjuch time and paper have been spent in exposing the erroneous 
and injurious practices generally pursued in the cultivation of the 
soil. However, as in doing this, I have been obliged to contrast 
those errors with the principles of a rational and proper cultivation, 
but little remains to be said on this subject, except, briefly to 
arrange these principles under one general head. As in doing this, 
I am compelled to recapitulate a great deal that has been already 
advanced, but few new ideas will appear in this chapter. I will 
commence it by observing, that the cultivator should never forget, 
that fallow crops ought to be invariably grown on speargrass or 
clover lays, whenever it can be done. This will be always prac- 
ticable, after his grounds have been reduced to a proper system of 
management. 

Both clover and speargrass lays are excellent for fallow crops ; 
but the latter is best for this purpose, as it may be kept much 
longer, without danger of the grasses running out. 

The roots of these grasses, when turned up for crops, seem to 
sink slower into decay; of course are better calculated to extend 
the advantages derived from them to succeeding crops: but as 
reversing the roots of red clover quickly and effectually kills the 
plant, it forms a much better lay for wheat and other small grain : 
especially when they are sown broad cast. When the soil is rich, 
or a sufficiency of enriching manure can be applied for the fallow 
crop, to insure a luxuriant growth of the speargrasses, they should 
be sown to form a lay for the ensuing crop of the same description; 
unless clover be sown with a view to the destruction of weeds. 
When the speargrasses form a lay for the fallow crop, and clover 
for the wheat or other small grain, a change in vegetation is intro- 



171 

ducetl, which greatly favours the product of the crops.* It clearly 
appears from the economy of nature, as well as the practice of hus- 
bandry, that the soil becomes tired of growing the same plants too 
long. The cause of this is not certainly known, but it seems proba- 
ble, as some plants are deficient in matters which other plants 
possess more abundantly, that it is by the decay of different plants, 
or such parts of them as are not removed, that the different fertili- 
zing principles are best blended with the soil. As plants, as well as 
animals, may, to a certain extent, have the power to select such food 
as suits them best, this also may operate against growing the same 
plants on the same soil, without a proper intermediate change in 
vegetation. 

Be this, however, as it may, it appears that a regular system of 
change may be readily formed, to prevent any injury of this kind, 
without resorting to the random changes of seed and plants, that 
seem to be subversive of all rational improvement. As this is a 
very interesting subject, the changes effected by nature have been 
explained in my book on Vegetation and Manures. 

Grass lays, when properly applied and cultivated, are very pro- 
ductive, and enrich the soil far beyond what is generally supposed, 
or can in fact be accomplished by the usual practice. They also 
alter the texture of it so much, that it is capable of growing valuable 
crops, which were before opposed to its natural texture, and which 
could never have been profitably grown on it, until this alteration 
had been effected. 

It is true, that other substances will produce this change, and the 
effect will be more permanent; they, however, are both bulky and 
weighty, and the introduction of them very expensive. Neither do 
they enrich the soil, except by the small portion of animal and ve- 
getable matter that may happen to be contained in them. Whereas 
the grasses cost nothing but their seed, and the little labour of sow- 
ing them over the crops of small grain ; and although the altera- 
tion effected by them be not so permanent, it is readily repeated ; 
and every repetition introduces valuable manure. As the soil is 
never stripped of animal and vegetable matter, it will require much 
less farm yard manure for cultivated crops. If grasses be selected 
that are suitable to the soil and climate, the farmer will be but sel- 
dom disappointed by their not succeeding. 

Even herdgrass, which is considered peculiarly calculated for 
swampy and wet grounds, has been found to succeed in light and 
sandy lands ; consequently filled the soil with its innumerable 
roots. Still, to insure success, the nature of the grasses ought to 
be in unison with the properties of the soil. However, if herdgrass 
should generally succeed on sandy soils, it would be very valuable. 
Its roots must form a great mass of strong vegetation, or they 
would not be capable of supporting loaded waggons, where, before 

* If the ground be sufficiently rich to grow speargrasses and farm yard 
manure is plenty, and these grasses suit the cultivator best, the change in vege- 
tation may be readily effected by growing different vaiieties of them. 



172 

this grass was sown, the grounds were too swampy to admit an ox 
or horse to pass safely through them. It is said of red top, which 
is a variety of this grass, that it will grow and form a sod in one 
year on banks where no other grass will thrive. 

If nature and reason had been sufficiently consulted in the prac- 
tice of husbandry, it would have been generally known, that plough- 
ing a considerable mass of vegetation under a sandy soil, will as 
eft'ectually prevent an injurious evaporation of moisture from it, 
as the application of any other substance commonly used for that 
purpose, until the vegetation is decomposed. 

The fertility of rich, sandy soils also determines, that an injurious 
evaporation of moisture from them, is greatly retarded, even by 
the enriching matter arising from the decomposition of the vegeta- 
ble substances while it continues in the grounds. Hence it is, that 
we hear but little complaint of the sandy texture of soils, until 
these substances, and the fertilizing matter arising from the de- 
composition of them, have been considerably exhausted by an inju- 
dicious husbandry. On the contrary, we find that the renters of 
land generally prefer sandy soils, while they continue rich ; the 
cultivation ot such grounds is far less laborious than those of a 
firmer texture, and may be progressing, when continued rains have 
put a stop to the plough in soils that are more retentive of moisture. 
It is also worthy of remark, that the nutriment arising from the 
vegetation ploughed under the soil, will greatly promote the vigour 
of the plants : also, that the close shade formed by this increased 
vegetation, is well calculated to defend the soil from the injurious 
influence of the sun and air ; whereas the mixture of clay, &c. 
with a sandy soil, merely alters the texture of it. 

Many gentlemen of distinguished talents fondly imagine, that 
alterations made by combining the different earths properly, will 
effect a more productive, as well as lasting improvement, than can 
be made in any other way ; it will be found, however, that no combi- 
nation of the simple earths, without the aid of animal or vegetable 
matter, can create a soil calculated for the efficient growth of 
plants: also, that after the animal and vegetable matter contained 
in this improved soil, has been exhausted, it, as well as the unim- 
proved ground, vail be unproductive. Plants cannot prosper in any 
soil, unless a sufficiency of nutriment has been provided for them. 
Still it is readily granted, that a happy mixture of the different 
earths greatly favours vegetation ; but this cannot be obtained, 
where nature has not formed it, without great labour and expense. 
No fact is more obvious in our recent settlements, than that every 
soil well stored with animal and vegetable matter is productive, 
until these substances have been too much exhausted : also, that 
after this evil has been effected, the fertility of the exhausted soil is 
restored, so soon as a sufficiency of animal and vegetable matter 
has been incorporated with it. Why then should we encounter the 
enormous labour and expense of altering the texture of our grounds, 
by mixing other earths with them, when we can grow luxuriant crops. 



173 

and gradually improve all the different soils, without having recourse 
to" this Herculean task ? 

The texture of stiff, retentive, clay soil, may be also as readily 
altered by grass lays; for, (as has been before observed,) every 
furrow slice forms an under drain, more especially if a good crop 
of grass be turned under the sod. The vegetation thus applied, 
more effectually cuts off the communication between the cold clay 
underneath and the furrow slice above : also furnishes a wider 
opening between the two to run off tlie moisture. This will fre- 
quently render ridging up useless, where it could not be dispensed 
with in the usual mode of cultivation; and often save the expensive 
practice of draining in still moister soils : provided the grounds be 
formed into ridges of a suitable width, and the clearing out fur- 
rows be properly regulated and cleaned out. But this is not all, for 
the innumerable roots of the grasses divide the soil minutely. The 
fermentation of them expands and opens it, and their gradual de- 
cay not only greatly enriches it, but also furnishes an inconceiv- 
able number of hollows or cavities throughout its whole extent. These 
openings being equal to the length, thickness, and number of the 
roots of the grasses and weeds, they are well calculated to admit the 
ready progress of the roots of the growing plants through every 
part of the soil. This, together with the powerfully expanding 
force of fermentation, and the nutritive matter obtained by decom- 
position, forms a light, open, artificial bed, well prepared for the 
growth of plants. When the soil is thus ordered, they do grow 
luxuriantly, and produce abundantly: provided the succeeding 
cultivation be calculated to secure these very obvious advantages. 

I have before observed, it seldom happens that any benefit is de- 
rived from deep ploughing, even for fallow crops, when the soil is 
thin : also, that much injury may arise from that practice, unless a 
sufficiency of enriching manure be applied ; as the under stratun\ 
of a poor soil is seldom calculated to promote vegetation. 

If the soil be tolerably good, six inches deep will be fully suffi- 
cient ; but if it be excellent, or a sufficiency of enriching manure be 
applied, from eight to nine inches will be round greatly preferable. 
Ploughing to this depth, is best done by one plough following an- 
other in the same furrow; the first plough pares off about one - 
third the depth, the second turns the remainder on the furrow 
slice formed by the first plough. If the ploughs be properly con- 
structed to effect this purpose, you will have a beautiful clean sur- 
face, readily pulverised with the hoe and tined harrow following it: 
but if the soil be tolerably mellow, the tined harrow alone will be 
found fully sufficient to pulverise it. 

It is said, the skim coulter plough will effect this depth of plough- 
ing equally well, and with much less labour. A plate of tliis 
plough may be seen in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Phi- 
ladelphia Agricultural Society. 

I do not think the engraving so correctly executed, as one I 
have seen in some other book on agriculture ; but 1 have forgotten 



174 

the name of the author. I have been informed, however, by a gen- 
tleman, who was practically acquainted with this plough, that it is 
very difficult to get the skim properly fixed, unless it be done by 
those who are well acquainted with the instrument: it therefore 
seems hazardous to attempt the construction of it without the aid 
of practical information. Still, as we are informed, (in a way that 
cannot be doubted,) that Ducket's skim coulter plough performs 
the same useful depth of ploughing as is done by two ploughs in the 
usual way ; also, at the same time, turns under and effectually co- 
vers long, strawy, farm yard manure, and the tallest green crops ; 
it would seem that it should be introduced into this country, where 
labour is high and difficult to procure, and the grounds are but too 
seldom ploughed sufficiently deep : especially for maize, and some 
other fallow crops. 

But to return. After the grounds have been prepared as above 
described, and the seed planted at a depth suitable to the economy 
of the plants, a level and superficial cultivation should follow, even 
when the soil is retentive of moisture. In case, however, of too 
much moisture for a level preparation of the lay, the sod should 
be properly ridged up at first. To prevent the middle of the ridge 
from being injuriously high, the two first furrows ought barely to 
meet each other in the centre of it. As ridges are calculated to 
produce artificial droughts, the least possible declivity is best: 
especially as the under drains formed by the furrow slices, toge- 
ther with the clearing out furrows, will be found sufficient to run 
off the superfluous moisture. After the ridges have been formed, 
the roller should be used to sink those parts of the furrow slices 
that, by lying hollow, are raised above the rest. When this has 
been done, the seams between the furrow slices ought to be well 
closed with the tined harrow. If the sod be very compact, (which 
generally happens in retentive lays,) a much better preparation for 
planting is obtained, by running the hoe harrow once or twice 
through the soil, before the tined harrow is used. The seams be- 
tween the furrow slices will also be much better closed by this 
practice, as more loose earth will be obtained. 

Care should be taken to keep the cleaning out furrows open dur- 
ing the cultivation of the crop. This may be done by the plough 
going up and down them, in the same tract, unless the excess of 
moisture render it necessary to preserve their original width. As 
the inequality in the surface will often prevent the moisture from 
running from one end to the other of the furrow slices, it should, 
in that case, meet with no obstacle that would prevent its escape 
at the sides of the ridges, into the cleaning out furrows.* 

In the cultivation for the small grain that follows the fallow crop, 
care should be taken to order the coui'se of the hoe and tined har- 

* After very heavy rains, the plants standing in hollow parts of the field are 
sometimes very much injured, unless slight drains are formed by the hand 
hoe across the ridge where the water remains stagnant. 



175 

rows, in that way best calculated to reduce the ridges as near to 
the form of flat beds, as can be done by the harrow going length- 
wise of the furrows: as when I shall hereafter describe the proper 
cultivation for wheat sown in the fall, it will clearly appear, that if 
the cleaning out or water furrows are not wider apart than half a 
perch, this crop will not suffer, when sown on flat beds ; even if 
the soil is not only retentive of moisture, but also spouty or springy 
to a considerable degree. It is evident, that the rotundity of ridges 
is very injurious, unless the spring and summer happen to be un- 
usually dripping ; and quite as obvious that the sun cannot act 
equally on every part of them. 

I am well aware, that ridges of not half this width have been 
used and recommended by enlightened cultivators. It, howevef, 
should be recollected that these gentlemen pursued a cultivation 
calculated uselessly to waste the animal and vegetable matter con- 
tained in the soil. The latter, before it sinks deep into decay, has 
a tendency to keep the soil open, by separating its parts, even 
when it is only mixed through it ; but this is far better effected by 
forming under drains with the furrow slices, well stored with ve- 
getation. 

If the grounds be not laid down in grass, to be continued for two 
or more years, after one crop of grain is sown on them, red clover 
should be sown with the small grain that followed the fallow crop. 
This should be mowed but once the ensuing year, and the second 
crop turned under wheat, sown in the fall. In forming the flat 
beds for this crop, in grounds which have been ridged up, the 
ploughing ought to commence at the former cleaning out furrows. 
In this case, the water furrows will be formed in the middle of the 
former ridges or beds. Care should, however, be taken to put 
the two first furrows very closely together, or the beds will be 
lowest in the middle, which would be very injurious to the crop. 
The water furrows for this crop should also be well regulated, and 
properly cleaned out. As the ploughing for every succeeding 
round of crops will commence at the water furrows formed for the 
last cultivated crop, every fallow crop after the first may be grown 
on beds perfectly flat, or with a little rotundity, if this should be 
considered best. 

The under drains formed by the furrow slices will not continue 
open, long after the cultivated crop sown on the clover lay is re- 
moved. Neither should they, for the cleaning out furrows will be 
found sufficient to carry oft' the superfluous moisture from these 
grasses ; as they require much more of it than cultivated crops. 
Hence it is that dripping climates are considered the best for grass, 
and that crops of small grain, when sown in the fall, do not gene- 
rally succeed well in such climates, unless proper provision be 
made to run off* the excess of moisture. 

Here I wish the reader to observe, that the level cultivation means 
nothing more or less, than that, after the crops have been planted, 
all ridging, hilling, or moulding up should cease. 



i7i> 

Hilling, ridging, and moulding up plants, must have originated 
in barbarism, or but a few removes from it ; like the practice of 
planting fruit trees as though they were fence posts. The latter 
practice, however, has been abandoned bj enlightened cultivators, 
and the former will share the same fate, when nature and reason are 
harmonized in the practice of husbandry. Hilling, ridging, and 
moulding up plants have been the too general practice of the world 
from time immemorial. It is, however, as much opposed to reason 
and observation, as it is to the economy of nature, and these ought 
to govern all our agricultural pursuits. 

When the grounds have been properly prepared for planting, no 
possible good can arise from this inconsiderate practice ; except 
^hen applied to celery, or other plants, which habit has rendered 
^ore palatable when blanched. The evils arising from it, however, 
are many and great: it compels the plants to form new sets of 
roots, so often as they happen to be ridged or hilled up. This is 
done at the expense of those already formed, as the roots of plants 
cease to perform their proper functions when buried too deep within 
the soil: thus the efforts of nature are diverted by the folly of 
man, to useless and very injurious purposes, instead of being ap- 
plied to the growth and maturity of the crop. 

If the soil be too thin and weak, or the habits of the plants too 
delicate, to form repeated sets of roots readily, vegetation languishes 
still more, and the injury is greater. Hilling and ridging up plants, 
form furrows or gutters, exactly calculated to carry of the rains, 
and produce artificial droughts ; yet so infatuating are long estab- 
lished practices, that the very obvious effects produced by them 
pass unregarded. Even sandy soils, which part with moisture too 
freely, under the best system of management that can be devised, 
are generally cultivated in this way. This very inconsiderate 
practice turns up the grass roots and dung, (if the latter has been 
applied,) and exposes them to the very injurious effects of the sun, 
wind, and rain : consequently scatters much of the nutriment in 
the air, which should be secured for the crops and improvement 
of the soil. Still we are told, that this is the proper way to •' subdue 
the sod." This is not all, for the openings made by ridging up the 
plants, may be justly considered as main drains, communicating 
with innumerable avenues running in every direction through the 
ground, from which the moisture and confined air escape; and with 
them, the nutriment contained in the enriching matter buried in the 
soil. This checks fermentiation and decomposition, and with them 
the exciting and nutritive principles arising therefrom. In fact, 
hilling and ridging up plants, may be justly considered, as in direct 
opposition to nature and reason, and of consequence to good hus- 
bandry. Still it has remained in general practice, except where 
the intervals between the plants have been so limited, that man, 
with all his ingenuity, could not devise means to effect the ruinous 
purpose, as in narrow drilled wheat, or turnips sown broad cast, &c. 

The level cultivation which has been recommended should be 



177 

only sufficiently deep to extirpate weeds. The less the open, mel- 
low, artificial bed prepared for the growth of the plants is disturbed, 
the better it is calculated to promote vegetation : also, to secure the 
riches contained in it for the following crops and the improvement 
of the soil. The skim, with a proper rake attached to the hinder 
part of it, will effect this purpose in very narrow intervals, and the 
hoe harrow, with the tined harrow following it, in wider, with much 
less labour than the common plough, except where stones, and 
stumps with superficial roots abound. There the shovel plough, 
(with a share but little more pointed than one-half of a circle,) 
should be introduced, until a better tool has been invented for this 
purpose. 

The common plough cuts off, laps over, and mangles the roots of 
the plants in ridging them up. Although the soil is not diminished 
by this inconsiderate practice, the roots of the plants are confined 
in heaped up ridges. This compels them to take such unnatural 
directions that their prosperity is greatly abridged ; particularly in 
narrow intervals, and in these the injury is most observable. 

When this instrument is used for ploughing from and to plants, 
the roots on the sides of them next to the intervals are cut off. The 
gentlemen who recommended this practice must have seen its in- 
jurious effects by the paler complexion and very slow growth of the 
plants, until they recovered from the very manifest injury done to 
them by this truly barbarous operation. 

If they had recommended the tops to be cut off at the same time, 
uniformity would have been better preserved, with the additional 
advantage that might be derived from a new set of tops as well as 
roots. The subject is really too ludicrous to be treated seriously. 
Still, gentlemen of great talents have recommended this practice : 
however, nature, i-eason, and practice united, clearly determine that 
the less plants are injured in the cultivation, the better: provided 
the cultivation be equally good ; and it may be far better. Repeat- 
ed ploughing and harrowing pulverise the soil, and leave it quite 
open and mellow. It, however, too soon becomes compact, in con- 
sequence of the -loss of the animal and vegetable matter exposed 
to useless waste by this injudicious practice, unless the soil be so 
rich as not to be materially affected by this very inconsiderate 
waste. Whereas, the fermentation of the animal and vegetable 
matter, when closely confined under the soil, will keep it con- 
tinually open and mellow, for the ready admission of the roots of 
the plants. " 

We are told that cutting the roots increases the number of them, 
and that this multiplication of the roots greatly promotes the growth 
and prosperity of the plants. No question but that more branches 
will spring out from the stubs, after the roots have been cut off. It 
should, however, be recollected, that nature has formed the roots 
exactly to suit the economy of the plants, and that no possible good, 
but much evil, must arise from the ill judged attempts of man to 
improve the formation of them: especially by mutilating them ir- 



178 

regularly, as is done by the plough. The injury done by this prac- 
tice is readily seen by the procrastination of the growth of the 
plants, until these new sets of roots are formed. 

I have carefully pruned, and too often ruggedly mutilated annual 
plants, by various injudicious systems of cultivation; but evil, in- 
stead of good, invariably followed, except when I removed the 
suckers growing near to the roots of their parent stem, and believe 
that even this operation should be very carefully performed, and 
while the suckers are very young. 

Still, I do not question that the gentlemen who recommended 
ploughing from and to plants, grew good crops in that way. It 
should still, however, be remembered that talents, capital, and in- 
dustry, have often done this, when a highly interesting part of the 
management has been excessively bad. 

The usual mode of cultivation is not well calculated to subdue 
weeds. The seeds are as often turned down beyond the power of 
vegetation, as they are turned up. They are also buried under- 
neath the heaped up ridges, and when the grounds are cultivated 
for the small grain, they are spread abroad. As this favours the 
vegetation of them, they often greatly injure the crops. These facts 
are best seen when the grounds have been manured for a fallow 
crop, with dung made by cattle fed on clover hay. In that case, the 
seeds buried under the ridges often produce as luxuriant crops of 
this grass as if they had been sown. This does not happen when a 
level cultivation has been properly executed. It turns up none of 
the seeds that are buried beyond the power of vegetation. They 
of course remain torpid, and as those near the surface vegetate, 
they are destroyed. 

I have before observed, nothing but fire, or some cause that acts 
in the same powerful way, will destroy the vegetative powers of 
plants, as soon, or so effectually, as a well directed fermentation. 
Numerous instances of the powerful effects produced by this simple 
operation of nature, might be advanced I have already mentioned 
some of them; but as it may lead the farmer to recollect others, 
and prevent the injury caused by them, I will briefly observe, that 
if a long spell of rainy weather takes place after grass has been 
mowed, and the swaths be not turned in due time, both the tops 
and the roots of the grasses covered by them are sadly injured, and 
sometimes effectually killed, by the fermentation occasioned by this 
covering alone. It also but too often happens, that both small grain 
and grass plants are greatly injured, or destroyed, by the still 
much lighter covering of the leaves blown on them from adjacent 
woods; when a boy or a girl with a rake, timely used, could have 
prevented the injury. 

Now, if fermentation alone be capable of doing this, when but 
piartially favoured, certainly vastly more is to be expected from 
this powerful agent, when its whole force is brought into full effect. 
No question but this is done when plants are turned upside down, and 
the vegetation arising from them regularly cut off a little within 



179 

the surface of the soil by the hoe harrow, also overturned and ef- 
fectually mangled by the tined harrow following it. The wounds in- 
flicted on them, together with the close covering of earth above 
them, greatly promote fermentation, and of course hasten their de- 
struction. 

The reason why this powerful agent has not been brought into 
general use, seems to be simply this ; farmers have not seen, when 
the tops and roots of the grasses, or other enriching manure are 
buried under the soil, and a proper cultivation pursued, that fer- 
mentation more eftectually expands, divides, and keeps the grounds 
open and mellow than can be effected with the plough. We might, 
however, have long since seen the impropriety of the usual mode 
of cultivation, merely by walking through these parts of our woods 
which still remained well set with timber, and other native vegeta- 
tion. There we might observe that our feet sunk freely into a soil, 
which nature had kept covered with leaves, and so effectually cul- 
tivated through the medium of this simple covering by fermentation 
alone, that the grounds were kept more open and mellow than our 
best cultivated fields : also, that the depth of this open texture was 
in due proportion to the animal and vegetable matter contained in 
the soil underneath the covering of leaves. We might likewise 
have seen that nature did not cut, rend, or mangle either the tops 
or the roots of the plants, and by this means debilitate, and procras- 
tinate the growth of them, nor form hills or mounds around, nor 
ifurrows or ditches between them, to run off the moisture necessary 
to their growth. 

There can be no difficulty in altering the present mode of cultiva- 
tion, so as to save the farm yard manure, also, that arising from the 
roots of the grasses; and at the same time preserve the roots of the 
plants from injury by a level cultivation, when fallow crops are 
grown, or grass or clover lays alone. As peas and beans are fre- 
quently sown broad cast, and good crops of them are obtained in 
that way, they will certainly yield much larger crops, when kept 
free from weeds by a level cultivation. 

Turnips, beets, carrots, and other taprooted plants grown for 
feeding domesticated animals, require a good soil, or the application 
of manure if the soil be thin : therefore, no grounds can be so well, 
and at the same time so readily prepared for the growth of these 
roots, as grass or clover lays properly trench ploughed, consequently • 
there can be no difficulty so far as they may be concerned. 

For turnips especially, the lay should be turned some time before 
the seed is sown, that sufficient fermentation may take place, to 
press the plants forward quickly into the rough leaf, that they may 
escape the fly. This will, however, be no disadvantage, as it will 
enable the cultivator to destroy the first growth of weeds, by the 
hoe and tined harrows, soon after they have germinated, and at 
the time to sow the seed for the crop. He should also recollect, 
that although the surface obtained by trench ploughing will be free 
from grass and weeds, and may be easily pulverised, so as to ap- 



180 

pear as clean as a naked fallow which has been well prepared, still 
the seed of weeds will vegetate abundantly, and poison the crop, 
unless the plants be cultivated, and if they be sown broad cast, this 
must be done by the hand hoe. 

Indian corn presents no difficulty to the practice recommended 
by me, for it is frequently grown on grass lays, from a conviction 
of their being the best preparation for this crop. Although the 
plants are in that case generally cultivated by ridging them up with 
the plough, there are some few who use the hoe harrow for the cul- 
tivation of maize, whether it be or be not grown on grass lays, be- 
cause the use of this simple instrument saves much labour. There 
are also some few cultivators, who have extended their views still 
further; they have seen, that the level cultivation by the hoe har- 
row secured moisture for their crops, while those of their neigh- 
bours, who ridged up the plants, suffered by drought : also, that by 
this practice, the sod was more effectually decomposed. Some of 
these cultivators suffer the hoe harrow to dip too deep and injure 
the roots of the plants. Others separate the roots from them, by 
using, in a part of their cultivation, harrows with sharp cutting- 
tines ; and the whole of them, so far as I have seen or heard, turn 
up the lay with the plough, to prepare it for the small grain which 
follows the corn ; still it clearly appears, that we have but little 
more to do, except stripping these various modes of management of 
their injurious absurdities, and uniting the remainder into a system 
consonant to nature and common sense. 

It also clearly appears, that no difficulty can arise in growing- 
potatoes on grass lays, for they are very often planted on them, and 
covered by the plough with the sod, and have been found sufficiently 
productive to perpetuate the practice ; although the solidity of the 
sod previously to fermentation and decomposition, is sometimes 
such, that many of the vines grow under it in the form of a cork- 
screw, some time before they can either penetrate it, or find their 
way out between the furrow slices. This compels them to spend 
too much of their energy, and alsotime, before they get through 
the soil, which causes the plants which are thus circumstanced, 
to be very unproductive ; this is not all, for they are generally 
buried too deep by ridging them up, not only with the soil in the 
intervals, but too often with the cold clay under it ; the bulbs by 
this silly practice are oppressed with the useless and vei-y injurious 
weight of the earth heaped over them. Ditches being also formed 
below the roots of the plants, they are sure to suffer greatly from 
this cause alone, except the season happen to be very wet. 

Potatoes are also productive when planted on beds in the Irish 
way, and covered with the soil and inert earth found in the ditches 
between the beds ; although they are generally planted on the hard 
sod, without any previous cultivation, and frequently without the 
application of manure ; and the only cultivation bestowed on the 
plants is covering them soon after they appear, with the inert earth 
King up from the bottom of the ditches. Yet Irishmen say this earth 



181 

nourishes the crop greatly, when in fact it cannot possess the power 
of promoting vegetation in time to do the crop any good. The young 
weeds, however, are smothered by being covered over with it, and 
for this it happens by chance to be well applied. As it is not friendly 
to vegetation, but on the contrary, injurious to it, until it has been 
some time exposed to the atmosphere, it the more eftcctually de- 
stroys the weeds, and does not, (like hilling up with a nutritive soil,) 
excite the plants to form new sets of roots : consequently their en- 
ergies are directed to the perfecting of their fruit. This is a level 
cultivation, but the ditches between the beds render it less perfectly 
so, than that arising from planting in every furrow, and covering 
the seed regularly as the ground is ploughed. When this is done, 
the crop is cultivated with the tined harrow alone ; and though this 
savage practice mangles many of the plants sadly, tlie crops grown 
in that way have been sufficiently productive to induce a continua- 
tion of the practice. The largest crop that ever I have seen grown, 
(but one,) was obtained in this way without applying manure for it. 
It was grown on a stubble field, and the ground had been previ- 
ously manured for the crop of rye. The soil appeared to be natu- 
rally thin, and did not seem to be better improved than might be ex- 
pected from this irrational mode of cropping. 

From the little that has been advanced on the cultivation of the 
potato, it appears that if the different usual modes of cultivating this 
plant be also stripped of their injurious absurdities, and that part 
which is consonant with nature and reason be retained, that a level 
system of cultivating it on grass or clover lays, may be very advan- 
tageously formed, as will more clearly appear when I describe the 
proper cultivation of that root. 

It is not only in grass lays that a level cultivation is beneficial, 
for it is the best that can be pursued on grounds where the grasses 
have been generally obliterated by long cultivation, previously to 
preparing them for a fallow crop ; provided enriching manure be 
applied. The manure is confined under the soil and the innumer- 
able cracks which generally occur in grounds, where the animal and 
vegetable matter has been greatly exhausted, are filled up and 
closed, by the fine superficial tilth etFected by the hoe and tined har- 
rows. This excludes the injurious eftects of the sun and air, and 
the fermentation of the manure is greatly promoted, which naturally 
expands, divides, and keeps the soil moist, open, and mellow for the 
ready admission of the roots of the plants through every part of it; 
especially if the manure be fresh and well stored with litter, and 
closely covered by the soil. Some gentlemen assert that such ma- 
nure becomes a dryish wisp, incapable of aftbrding nutriment for 
plants. Others that it injures vegetation by an excess of heat ; the 
reverse of both these theories is true. When this kind of manure 
is applied in sufficient quantity to excite a profitable vegetation, (and 
neither less nor more, of any kind of manure should be applied,) the 
dried vegetable substances mixed with the dung, cause the fermenta- 
tion and decomposition of the whole mass to progress gradually. The 



182 

open texture of these dried substances naturally imbibes a large 
quantity of moisture. When lack of rain, drying winds, or the heat 
of the sun causes the soil above them to dry, they naturally part 
gradually with a greater abundance of moisture confined in them, 
to supply the deficiency above. When these substances become 
less moist than the ground underneath them, they act like a sponge 
and absorb the moisture from below ; this they continue to com- 
municate to the soil above. While this interesting process is going 
on, they shield the ground underneath them from the too powerful 
eftects of the sun, which checks evaporation of moisture from it. The 
substances contained in the long manure are powerful nonconduc- 
tors of heat. This is clearly seen when a slight hoar frost occurs. 
None of it is to be found on the ground ; while the dung, dropped 
by the cattle, is covered with it. As the dung has not been decora- 
posed, the woody fibre which forms a considerable proportion of it, 
prevents the heat arising from the earth, from melting the frost on 
the surface of it. In fact, a single straw lying on the ground, is 
sufficient to prevent the heat given out by the earth (when the air 
above is cooler than it,) from melting the hoar frost on the upper 
side of the straw. Now if gentlemen, before they wrote for the ex- 
press purpose of teaching us, would carefully study the effects pro- 
duced by the simple and very obvious operations of nature, these 
errors respecting fresh manure, and many more equally absurd, 
would cease to exist. 

Those who wish to test this fact, have only to use strawy fresh muck 
for a part of a fallow crop, and decomposed dung for another part 
of it, and observe the effects produced by both. If the soil be the 
same, it matters not whether the experiment be tried on stiff reten- 
tive clay or sand ; in either case the soil will be moister, during a 
dry time, where the strawy fresh muck had been used: if the cul- 
tivation be calculated to keep the manure closely covered within 
the ground. 

Although I have pointed out the best course of cropping that has 
been practised, I have no idea that this course can be pursued, 
except where labour is plenty, and the farmer employs a capital 
equal to the task; neither do I believe when the cultivator is pos- 
sessed of these means, that he should be tied down to any course 
of crops, nor to any particular plants. It is the principles of cul- 
tivation and management only, that I mean to establish : I therefore 
wish the farmer clearly to understand, that, if his capital be suffi- 
cient, and labour can be had, and his soil has been properly enriched, 
his course of crops, also the plants cultivated by him, may be such 
as best suits his purpose j provided a sufficiency of grass crops be 
grown between the cultivated crops ; and his cultivation and 
management be calculated to save the animal and vegetable matter 
from useless waste. It has been too long expected that agriculture 
was to be highly improved by certain rounds of crops, and these 
have been very ingeniously diversified, and multiplied, so as use- 
lessly to waste much paper, ink, &c. under this mistaken idea. It 



183 

is, however, evitlent, while the soil continues thin, and even when 
it is good, that if the fanner either cannot, or will not, employ a 
suiBcient capital to keep an extensive stock of cattle, &c. he musj: 
practice a lenient course of cropping, and introduce lenient plants 
much more frequently than would be necessary, if he could com- 
mand a good stock of manure ; otherwise his grounds, in place of 
being made better, will eventually become poor. It also clearly 
appears, if nature and practical observation be consulted, that 
whether the grounds be rich or poor, or enriching manure be plenty 
or scarce, a rational change of the vegetation grown on the same 
soil should invariably take place. 

It will too frequently happen, especialljr when the cultivator 
follows a bad farmer, that much of the soil will be found too thin to 
grow a fallow crop, and also a crop of small grain to be followed 
by grass, when enriching manure cannot be applied. In this case 
it is highly important, that the grounds be prepared for the small 
grain in that way, which will cost him much less labour, and pro- 
duce a far better crop, than a naked fallow cultivated in the usual 
way. Also save the animal and vegetable matter from useless 
waste, and apply the nutriment arising from these substances to 
the growth of the crops, and enriching the soil. 

The stubble, grasses, or weeds, (as the case may happen to be,) 
should, if fall grain is sown, be well turned under the soil, the 
furrow slices levelled with the roller, and the seams between them 
well closed with the tined harrow, going lengthwise of the furrows. 
The time of ploughing ought to be so ordered, that two several dis- 
tinct growths of the weeds which vegetate, may be destroyed by two 
very superficial cultivations, done at distinct, and distant periods, 
by the hoe harrow, with the tined harrow following it ; and so ma- 
naged as to give time for a third growth of weeds to take place, 
previously to the seed being sown. On this third and last growth 
of weeds, the small grain should be sown, before the superficial cul- 
tivation of the hoe and tined harrow ; this will answer the double 
purpose of putting in the seed, and destroying the weeds, provided 
care be taken, that the size of the weeds be not so great as to frus- 
trate the design.* 

If spring grain is to be sown, the cultivator should calculate to 
turn the stubbles, grasses, or weeds under the soil at a later date, 
so that the weeds grown after the second cultivation done in the fall 
may not be found, in the spring, large enough to prevent the effec- 
tual destruction of them, by the hoe and tined harrow, in the way 
which has been described above. 

Here it may be proper to remark, that as grain sown on a thin 
soil in the fall is often greatly injured, and sometimes ruined by the 
frost of the ensuing winter and spring, I would advise the cultivator 
(if bread corn be his object) to sow either spring wheat or spring 
rye. 

* One of those cuUivations may be safely omitted, if the grounds be not, (as 
too often happens,) oven'un with brambles or hardy weeds. 



184 

As frost locks up vegetation in some situations much sooner than 
in others, I am compelled to leave the time when the stubbles, 
grasses, or weeds should be turned under the soil, to be determined 
by the practice and observation of the cultivator. 

It is also worthy of remark, tliat if the grounds should be too thin 
to grow profitable crops of small grain, such green crops as they 
are best calculated to grow, ought to be previously cultivated and 
ploughed under for manure ; after this has been done, the grounds 
should be cultivated as above described, previous to sowing the 
small grain. It is a very mistaken economy, to save in labour, a 
much less sum than will be lost, by having the cropiof small grain, 
and the grasses following it, choked and poisoned with weeds : 
especially as the hoe and tined harrows properly constructed and 
ordered, will perform the labour with great despatch. As none of 
the seeds of the weeds buried beyond the power of vegetation will 
be turned up by these implements ; and those that are near the sur- 
face will not be turned under, much fewer weeds will appear in the 
crops, than would follow the very laborious and expensive process 
of a naked fallow well executed in the usual way. It should also 
be well remembered, that the animal and vegetable matter con- 
tained in the soil, is saved from useless waste by this practice. 

Fallow crops require much more labour than can be readily pro- 
cured in this country, to grow them to any thing like that extent, 
which would be sufficient to prepare the soil for the wheat, rye, and 
other small grains that are sown : consequently, much wheat, and 
other small grain is grown on grounds which have been prepared by 
a naked fallow; these are seldom ploughed more than three times, 
and I have seen luxuriant wheat grown on grounds which were 
good, and also well stored with the roots of the grasses, when they 
have been but twice ploughed : however, when the seeds of weeds 
abound, this seems to be a risking practice. 

As clover lays are not generally cultivated until the greater part 
of the plants has been destroyed in the way that has been de- 
scribed, and hardy grasses and weeds have taken possession of the 
space occupied by them, and the soil is consolidated by time and 
the hoofs of the cattle, or as farmers commonly term it, becomes 
liide bound ; it has been found that wheat, or small grain, does not 
commonly prosper on them when sowed on one ploughing, or on 
speargrass \aj&, when they are matted and bound. To remedy this 
evil, the grounds are often sowed with buckwheat on one ploughing, 
but more frequently after it has been twice ploughed, and the 
grounds are cultivated the ensuing year by a naked fallow, and 
sowed with wheat, of which good crops are often obtained. The 
product, however, obtained by either of these practices, is frequently 
scanty, and seldom, if ever, as luxuriant as it would be if a better 
system of management were pursued. Added to this, one year's rent 
of the soil is commonly lost in preparing the naked fallow for 
wheat. The animal and vegetable matter contained in the land is 
also exposed to much useless waste : and as three or four crops are 



/ 



185 



ronimonlj grown before grass seeds are sowed, (of which the far- 
mer seldom sows lialf enough,) the soil is eventually impoverished, 
unless these evils be counteracted by keeping an extensive stock of 
cattle, and using much enriching manure. On the contrary, it too 
commonly happens that, in place of using enriching manure, the 
injudicious use of lime and gypsum hastens the destruction of the 
soil. There are, however, many plain, practical farmers in this 
country, who do keep extensive stocks of cattle ; make much ma- 
nure, and, notwithstanding I believe they might generally use it 
more advantageously, and greatly improve the system of farming, 
it is evident that their present mode of management does honour 
to their profession. 

Of the management of those who sow no grass, except a patch 
of bottom meadow, barely sufficient, with the aid of much straw, 
to keep their scanty stock of cattle from perishing with hunger 
through the winter, nothing good can, or ought to be said, so far as 
farming may be concerned. These perpetual ploughers and crop- 
pers seldom suffer the grounds to lie sufficiently long to be well 
covered by the slow but certain hand of nature, even with weeds. 
Their crops, of course, are commonly very scanty. This seems to 
induce them to perpetuate the practice ; for if much ground be not 
cultivated, a product sufficient to answer their purpose cannot be 
obtained, unless a better system of management were pursued. 

Now it may be truly said of these men, that "they" seem to 
" love to grope in the dark," and that, so far as agriculture is con- 
cerned, they act as would do " the most ignorant set of people in 
the world." If, however, proper measures were taken to convince 
them that their system of management was very injurious to them, 
it would, in process of time, be found that they are not so ignorant 
as some seem to imagine. Since I removed to the back-woods, 
where such farmers are more especially plenty, I have had a better 
opportunity of observing their talents, and must confess that I have 
found them much more respectable than 1 formerly believed them 
to be. 

They will quickly build an ark, of very considerable burden, 
without a particle of iron, or an inch of cordage ; and in the time 
of a freshet, when the waters are pouring down our rivers and 
creeks with astonishing velocity, they will, with great dexterity and 
intrepidity, conduct this vessel, heavily laden, between rocks and 
through waterfalls. They will patiently encounter a long and 
fatiguing journey back on foot, heavily laden with necessaries for 
the use of their families. Thus they become travellers; and as 
rubbing through the world generally sharpens a man's wit, they re- 
turn home much better informed, having seen and h^ard much by 
the way: likewise, become well versed in barter, purchase, and 
sale. 

These men, with no other tools than a common axe, auger and 
pocket knife, will, with astonishing expedition, build a tight and 
comfortable dwelling house, or a convenient barn, without a single 

Aa 



186 

nail or a particle of iron. The floors strong and well formed ; the 
doors conveniently hung ; and decent sashes for the windows, first 
roughed out with the axe, and then finished with the pocket knife. 
Such household furniture as answers their purposes is also made 
with the same tools. So are their implements of husbandry, except 
the iron work, which is also made by some of them, and there are 
but few who cannot make the shoes worn by their family. The dex- 
terous use of the rifle furnishes most of the meat that is eaten by 
them. They dress the skins of the deer, and often, without either 
needle, silk, or thread, make well looking pantaloons of them ; and 
when money is scarce, some other parts of their dress are also 
formed of them. They will scald and clean a hog without either 
pot, kettle, or any other fire proof utensil. 

In fact, these men generally come into the back-woods exceed- 
ingly poor. They seldom have more money than will pay their ex- 
penses on the road, and often do not bring more than a horse and 
cow with them: therefore, are commonly much better stocked with 
young, helpless children than they are with cattle: consequently, 
they are compelled to exercise those talents which nature distri- 
butes without partiality, or starve. 

Now, it is evident that there are no cultivators of the soil in 
Pennsylvania, that farm worse than do these men. Also, that they 
possess sufficient talents to farm quite as well as any other " set of 
people in the world," who possess no more capital than they do, if 
these talents were properly directed. It is likewise evident that 
they understand, and have sufficient ability of body and energy of 
mind to perform all the different branches of the manual labour 
done on a farm; and that very cramped circumstances have taught 
them to exercise their ingenuity in every possible way to save la- 
bour and expense; also, to live on homely fare. Therefore they 
ought to be instructed ; but not to engage in doubtful, or uselessly 
expensive practices. These, it must be confessed, have (together 
with other practices that are really good,) been too often indiscrimi- 
nately and highly recommended to every class of farmers : alth6ugh 
common sense and observation clearly dictate that the farmer, who 
is either cramped in his circumstances, or possesses more cleared 
land than he has sufficient capital to cultivate, in the most advan- 
tageous way, or cannot procure enough of labour to effect this pur- 
pose, neither can nor ought to attempt to farm, as those should do 
who possess the means by which they, may readily effect this in- 
valuable end. 

The true state of the case is simply this; there is much more 
c icared land in the United States than there is labour or capital to 
cultivate to the best advantage, and this state of things will exist 
while large bodies of back lands remain to be sold at very reduced 
prices. The question, therefore, is not only how the soil may be 
so cultivated that it will produce the most neat clear profit, with 
the least possible labour and expense, but also, how are the diffe- 
rent grades of farmers, (from those who have it in their power to 



187 

farm in the best way, down to the indigent cultivator in the back- 
woods,) to manage so as to improve, in place of impoverishing, the 
soil; and at the same time obtain as much neat clear profit from 
their grounds, as can be rationally expected from the capital em- 
ployed, and the labour that may be readily procured ? 

It has, and will be, my aim to explain these important questions 
How far I may succeed will be best determined by the reader after 
he has perused my advice to gentlemen farmers, and also to he 
cramped or circumscribed cultivators of the soil. 

But to return to the practice of those who prepare the soil for a 
crop of wheat, or other small grain, by a naked fallow, although it 
is sufficiently rich to be prepared for these crops by the cultivation 
of a fallow crop, were it not that either a deficiency of capital or 
scarcity of labour intervened. 

It would be a far better practice to turn up and prepare the grass 
lay in the way that has been recommended, (when the grounds are 
not too thin to grow more than one crop of small grain,) either for 
wheat or other small grain ; and after the crop has been removed 
to cultivate the stubble grounds superficially with the hoe and tined 
harrow alone, (as often and in the same way as has been recom- 
mended,) for another crop of small grain, but of a different kind. 
On this crop, grass seed should be sown, and the ground ought to 
be continued three years in grass, unless the soil be rich and deep, 
or enriching manure has been applied.* In the latter case, the lay may 
be turned up in two years, for another course of crops. Good crops 
of rye and oats have been obtained after wheat. But if the soil be 
rich and deep, or has been well manured, barley will be more pro- 
fitable, where it is in demand. Stubbles should always be cut low; 
especially to be cultivated by the hoe and tined harrows. If cut 
high, they are dragged up into heaps, and injure the crop. 

A still more lenient and profitable course of cropping would be 
to sow clover on the first crop of small grain. Mow the first crop 
of that grass as early as it ought to be done to make good hay, and 
turn down the second crop for wheat; level the furrow slices, and 
close the seams between them in the way that has been directed. 
This should be done in time for a crop of weeds to vegetate. On 
this crop of weeds, (which should be young and small,) sow the 
wheat, and put it in with the hoe and tined harrows. On the wheat 
sow grass, to be continued two years. Ploughing a clover lay more 
than once, is a very bad practice; but the destruction of the weeds 
by a very superficial cultivation will pay the fanner well, both in 
the wheat and grass crops following it. 

A still more profitable course would be, to turn up the grass lay, 
level the furrow slices, and close the seams between them. On the 
young growth of weeds, described above, sow buckwheat, Albany, 
or lady peas, broad cast. Put them in with the hoe and tined har- 

• If enriching manure be applied, it should be spread over the sod, and 
turned under with it: 



188 

rows, as before directed. If peas be sown they will come off in time 
to cultivate the grounds with the hoe and tined harrows for fall 
wheat, to be sown on the young crop of weeds, which should be suf- 
fered to vegetate before the small grain be sown. On this young 
growth of weeds sow the wheat, cover it with the hoe and tined 
harrows, and the same cultivation will destroy the weeds. Sow 
clover on the wheat, mow the first crop of that grass, and turn un- 
der the second crop for another crop of wheat; for which, cultivate 
the clover lay, put in the seed, and destroy the young growth of 
weeds, ("which should be suffered to vegetate previously to sowing 
the seed,) in the way mentioned before. Sow speargrass on the 
wheat, to be continued three years. If dung be applied for the peas, 
the speargrass lay may be cultivated in two years. 

Buckwheat, if sown at the usual time, will come off later than 
the peas : consequently, it will be best to cultivate the ground after 
the buckwheat has been removed with the hoe and tined harrows, so 
that the weeds which vegetate in the fall, (after this cultivation,) 
may not be found too large to be effectually destroyed by the cul- 
tivation with the hoe and tined harrows that covers the seed of the 
small grain. This should be sown on the growth of weeds so soou 
in the spring as the frost will permit it to be covered. Sow clover 
seed on this crop. Mow the first crop of the clover, and turn the 
second crop under for wheat. Cultivate the clover lay ; also, sow and 
put in the seed, and destroy the young growth of weeds, (which 
should be suffered to vegetate after the cultivation,) in the way that 
has been directed : sow speargrass on the wheat, to be continued 
three years, or but two years, if dung was applied for the buck- 
wheat. It may be best for a crop of spring small grain to follow 
the peas ; but as they will come off early, the growth of the weeds 
may be such as to require two cultivations to be done in the fall by 
the hoe and tined harrows, or the weeds may be found too large in 
the spring. As clover will be grown between the crops of wheat, 
and speargrasses will have occupied the grounds two or three years 
previously to the first crop of wheat being sown, it is believed that 
no injury will arise from sowing wheat twice, in so short a time, on 
the same grounds. However, if any should appear, a suitable crop 
of small spring grain may be introduced, instead of one of the 
wheat crops. It should be observed that soils differ so very widely, 
that it may be found, (where dung is scarce,) necessary to turn the 
tops of the grasses under the soil more frequently than has been re- 
commended above. Of this, however, the cultivator who will see 
the result of his cropping, will be the best judge. But certain I am, 
that no soil should be cultivated in that way which will make it 
poorer: also, that it will be to the interest of the cultivator who 
has not a sufficiency of farm yard manure, to apply the tops, as 
well as the roots, of grasses, to this purpose, as often, and in such 
quantities, as will insure the gradual improvement of his lands. He 
will not only improve the soil by this practice, but also make much 
more money than by following an opposite mode of management. 



489 

Here again it may be proper to remind the reader, that this course 
of cropping is merely introduced, to show, how the soil maybe pre- 
served from that wide waste of ruin which is too often seen : also 
made better by a judicious growth of the grasses between the culti- 
vated crops; provided they be properly applied, and the nutriment 
introduced by them, be saved from useless waste. Likewise to con- 
vince him that in doing this, much useless and very injurious labour 
will be saved, and tlie product of the soil greatly increased. It is, 
however, by no means necessary to adopt any of those courses of 
crops. Still, if he be either cramped or circumscribed in his prac- 
tice, he may rest assured, that his interest and future prosperity are 
closely connected with putting the lenient principles on which those 
rounds of crops have been generally predicated into actual practice. 
But he should do it in that way which will best suit his purpose, or 
the peculiar situation in which he may happen to be placed. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

observations on what some say of the earthy texture of the soils, and the ma- 
nures to be applied to them. Also, on the different circumstances, capital, 
and situation of farmers. A concise description of the best course of crops. 
Remai'ks on the width of ridges in retentive soils. A description of the culti 
vation of a crop of wheat grown on a springy soil, with observations on the 
resiilt. Under draining soils which are merely retentive of moisture, is a use- 
less, injurious, and very expensive practice. Proper water furrowing for 
small grain explained ; also, observations on the ruinous and too general ne- 
glect of this practice. 

jl AviNG explained the general principles of a proper cultivation 
of the soil, it becomes necessary to show how they should be applied 
to a round of crops. But it would be an endless as well as a useless 
piece of business to attempt to diversify them to suit the soil, capi- 
tal, and situation of farmers in general. I have never seen cause 
for the voluminous and perplexing distinctions that too many at- 
tempt to make, between the capacity of soils of different textureS} 
either as it respects the manure which should be applied to them, or 
the growth of any of the plants generally cultivated by us. On the 
contrary, some of those soils which are commonly represented as 
unfit for certain plants, will produce larger and better crops of them 
than the soils which we are told favour their growth, provided they 
be properly cultivated. Enriching manure certainly acts powerfully 
on every soil if enough of it be applied, or in proportion as it hap- 
pens to be more or less nutritive. The principal use of stimulating 
manures, is to decompose more hastily the animal and vegetable 
matter found in the soil, and excite vegetation. 

There can be, however, no question but plants have their favourite 
soils ; when gratifying them does not break in upon that system of 
management best suited to the purpose of the cultivator, he will 
find it much to his interest to favour this propensity; especially 
when he lays down his fields in grass. 

Then if practicable, he should sow only such seeds as are adapted 
to the soil. As those are best calculated to yield the largest or 
most profitable crops, they will most effectually fit and prepare the 
lay, (by filling it with vegetation,) for the cultivated crops which 
may be best calculated to promote his interest. Here it may be 
proper to remark, that the increased vegetation will far better effect 
this valuable end, than the expensive labour of hauling and mixing 
clay with sand, or the sand with clay. 

This may be easily seen when gardens are formed on grass lays, 
■which frequently happens near to our cities or large towns, where 
the old fashioned buildings on farms are but too often sacrificed for 



191 

such as are better liked, and also placed in more eligible situations. 
On this little spot an immense variety of plants is immediately in- 
troduced, and each grows luxuriantly. The gardener first spreads 
the manure on the lay, and turns it with the sod under the soil so 
deep, that the grasses do not prove troublesome to him : for al- 
though he adopts the savage practice of hilling up the plants, this 
operation seldom extends so deep as to turn up the sod. 

Gentlemen who live in the country might have everlasting gar- 
dens, which would never become either (what is termed) sicK of 
particular plants, or of manure. To do this, ground enough should 
be allotted, to admit a regular succession of the grasses to be grown 
between the cultivated crops. 

It would add greatly to the beauty of a garden, if a variety of 
handsome grasses were selected for this purpose, and no question 
but a level cultivation would look much better than hills and hol- 
lows. The scuffle (or D hoe as it is sometimes called,) will destroy 
weeds growing on a level surface, with very great expedition. 

Even celery which cannot be cultivated level, would be greatly 
benefited by reversing the sod removed from the surface, and placing 
it in the trench underneath the roots of the plants. No ground 
would be lost by increasing the size of the garden, as the grasses 
might be mowed and fed green to the cattle, or made into hay. 

But to return. Some formers occupy poor soils, others rich, and 
many the dififerent grades between these wide extremes. There is 
quite as much difference between the extent of capital possessed or 
used by many of them. The difference of population and practica- 
bility of procuring labour in our extensive country is also very 
great. The markets and the expense as well as the means of trans- 
porting different crops to market differ widely. This extensive 
diversity does not, however, create any difficulty, so far as good 
farming is concerned. The cultivator (whether he be rich or poor,) 
who occupies no more soil than is consistent with his capital and 
means to cultivate it, may grow any cultivated crops that best suit 
his purpose, provided a sufficiency of grass crops intervene, and 
the whole be properly ordered. 

It should, however, be recollected, that this cannot be done until 
tlie grounds have been covered with grass, and a sufficient stock of 
cattle introduced. Also, that when the farmer occupies more soil 
than his capital is capable of cultivating to the greatest advantage, 
he must for a time adopt a more lenient course of cropping. This 
will be fully explained in my advice to the circumscribed farmer. 

The best course of crops, where the produce may happen to suit, 
and when the round is carried to a considerable extent, is : First, a 
manured fallow crop grown on a speargrass lay. Secondly, a crop 
of winter or spring small grain. Thirdly, red clover to be mowed 
but once. Fourthly, wheat grown on the clover lay, after the se- 
cond crop of that grass has been turned under for manure. Fifthly, 
speargrasscs, to be continued two years. 

I have commonly practised a shorter round of crops, to wit. First, 



192 

a fallow crop grown on a speargrass lay, properly manured. Se- 
condly, wheat or barley. Thirdly, speargrasses mowed three years. 
If I had continued on the farm near Philadelphia, until it had been 
properly enriched, the speargrasses would have been turned up for 
a fallow crop after they had been only two years mowed. 

Either of those systems of management is excellent, when capital 
and population will admit them to be employed. The latter intro- 
duces fewer weeds among the wheat, and less slabbering among the 
cattle. However, if the cultivator will turn the red clover lay 
soon enough to admit the cultivation by the hoe and tined harrows 
(which has been described,) his crops will be equally free from 
weeds ; and no question but they will be more productive than those 
put in by the tined harrow alone. 

It, however, should be observed, that unless the clover lay can 
be water furrowed, so that the parallel furrows will carry oif the 
superfluous moisture, the furrows formed across the lands, to effect 
this purpose, will furnish a quantity of vegetation, which, unless it 
be minutely separated and very thinly strewed over the lands, will 
greatly injure the crop on which it lies. Also, that where obstacles 
obtain, the lay cannot be well turned, and this difficulty will be 
greatly increased, if the grounds lie so as to require much water 
furrowing across the lands. 

If the grounds be retentive of moisture, and maize is planted for 
the fallow crop, they should be formed into ridges of three-quarters 
of a perch or eleven feet from centre to centre of the water furrows, 
in the way that has been described. Two rows of corn may be 
planted, five and a half feet asunder on each ridge, in the way that 
will be explained. This will place the middle of the ridge where 
the dung and soil has been doubled b^ the ploughing immediately 
between the two rows of maize. However, the lateral roots will 
soon find their way into it, and the top of the ridge will be more 
readily flattened by cultivation for the small grain and grasses; for 
which ridges of five and a half feet would be too narrow. 

For potatoes, beans, and other low growing plants, the ridges 
should be of the same width as for the corn ; on these the cultivator 
may form the rows at that distance apart which best suits the eco- 
nomy of the plants. 

Care should be taken in forming the ridges to pare off the last 
furrow slices which form the outside of them as narrow as it may 
be well done, for this will contract the width of the water furrows. 

As ridges are by no means equal to beds that are flat, or nearly 
so, either for the growth of fallow crops, or the small grain and 
grasses following them, they would not be introduced by me, if it 
were practicable to form proper water furrows without doubling the 
soil in the middle of each ridge ; they may be however considerably 
flattened in the cultivation of tlie fallow crop, also by the hoe and 
tined harrows, when they are cultivated for the small grain. 

There is reason to believe, that crops may be advantageously 
grown, even on soils where spouts and springs abound so much, 



193 

'hat the greater part of the fallow crops planted on them would 
dwindle and perish, and the crops of small grain grown on them, 
(especially if sown in the fall,) would be scarcely worth gathering, 
if cultivated in the usual way. 

However, of this the reader may form nearly as correct an opinion 
as myself, from the facts which I will now relate. 

In the fall of 1814, I determined to sow wheat upon about two 
acres of ground, from which two crops of potatoes had been previ- 
ously taken ; the last of consequence nothing like as productive as 
the first. 

As the soil was fresh and middling good, no manure was used 
either for the potatoes or wheat ; there were some springy places in 
an adjoining field lying on the higher grounds above ; as soon as 
the water from them entered into the grounds where the potatoes 
were grown, it sunk out of sight, through a loose soil which lay on 
a gentle declivity along the upper side of the patch; as the water 
after this met a stratum of clay lying near to the surface, it rose 
and appeared again on the top of the ground in the middle of the 
patch, spreading itself nearly from one end to the other. 

The ground being flat in the middle of the field, it afforded no 
rent for the water until it had progressed near to the furthest side 
of the patch ; as the ground there was higher, and its texture loose 
and open, the water again disappeared. 

Still a sufficiency remained, spread over the flat retentive clay 
soil to keep it so wet, that many of the potato sets rotted ; and 
turnip seed sown after this happened, did not vegetate, except in 
chance spots which lay something higher than tiie rest of the 
ground. 

I had determined after the wheat was sown, to cut oifthe springs 
by forming a ditch along the upper side of the field; but finding 
the open texture of the ground run very deep, the project was 
abandoned. 

It, however, fortunately happened, that the field had been well 
water furrowed. That proper water furrowing, and its important 
effects, especially in moist, cold, and unfavourable climates, may 
be better understood, than it seems to be, I will describe the culti- 
vation of this little patch of wheat. 

The grounds were staked off at the head and foot of the patch 
to regulate forming the lands ; these were half a perch, or eight 
feet three inches wide, from centre to centre of the water furrows. 
The wheat was sown at the rate of two bushels to the acre, without 
any previous preparation, except that made by the removal of the 
potato crop ; it was covered by the shovel plough ; and by passing 
twice in each water furrow, they were formed as well as it could be 
done by that instrument ; many stumps, with large superficial roots, 
prevented the introduction of the long plough, or the furrows might 
nave been much better formed by it. 

After a few lands were laid off by the shovel plough, the labour- 
ers who followed to regulate the furrows, were each of them fur- 

B b 



194 

nishcd with an axe to cut roots a mattock to remove the hard eartii 
and stones, and a shovel to clean out the furrows. The earth re- 
moved from them was thinly scattered over the lands, taking care 
to cover with the richer part of it, the seed lying in the forks formed 
by the roots from the stumps, as this could not be well covered by 
the shovel plough. 

Each proceeded in his own furrow, until a stump or large root 
opposed his progress. In either case he formed a cut across the 
land to empty the water into the water furrow, on that side of him 
which appeared best calculated to run it off. When this was done, 
he returned and commenced again in the furrow he had left, at the 
lower side of the large stump or root which had opposed his pro- 
gress. 

They proceeded in this way, still cutting the smaller roots which 
la^ in the way of forming the furrows, and leaving the larger ones 
uncut; also, removing and regulating such heights in the bottom of 
the furrows, as would prevent the water from running off freely. 

The hollows and lower parts of the field were well drained, by 
forming a few deep furrows in such directions through it as seemed 
best calculated to run off the Avater from the regular parallel fur- 
rows which emptied into them. 

The water furrows were in general formed not more than six 
inches deep. A little depth below the ploughed ground seemed to 
be sufficient to run off the water from the lands, as it would natu- 
rally filter through the cultivated grounds, and find its way into 
the furrows, either from the sides or ends of the lands. 

For as the soil had neither been exhausted nor ploughed deep, 
it still remained free and open, in consequence of its earthy ingre- 
dients being intimately blended with a variety of vegetable mat- 
ters, which had not yet sunk into decay. After the patch was wa- 
ter furrowed, it was considered necessary to cut off the water from 
the rain and snows which would fall on the land above it. This was 
done by forming a furrow on the upper side of the field, sufficiently 
deep and wide to arrest and carry off the water. The same was also 
done at one end of the patch, where the grounds lay higher than it. 
No stagnant water appeared after this on the ground: still the 
water from the spouts never ceased to run in some of the furrows, 
from the time the wheat was sown until it was cut, except during 
liard frost or a dry time ; but more abundantly when the earth was 
generally well stored with moisture. The plants, however, main- 
tained their vigour in the spouty places, as well as where the soil 
was drier, although most of them were cut off by the deer, level 
with the ground, through the winter and early part of the spring. 

When the wheat was ripe, it appeared that the plants standing 
where the water sank out of sight, as soon as it entered the field, 
were so luxuriant that a great part of them fell. This I attributed 
to the effect of moisture at a favourable depth under their roots. 
Si The success of this experiment induced me, the ensuing fall, to 
sow wheat on about two acres of ground, which lay adjoining the 



195 

wet grounds which had been successfully employed in the same way. 
On those two acres there were four small swampy places, which 
were so wet that the horses sometimes sunk up to their knees in 
ploughing through them. While the labourers were cleaning out 
the water furrows which ran through those boggy places, they were 
obliged to stand in them. If they set their feet on the lands, they 
sunk into the miry soil. However, as the furrows were made from 
nine to ten inches deep, the moisture escaped into them, and ran 
off in the course of three or four days, so that we could readily walk 
over the landswithout sinking into them. The wheat did not vege- 
tate or come up so thick on the boggy places as on the rest of the 
field. The fall and fore part of the winter was unfavourable for 
winter grain. The frost was severe, and but little snow until after 
Christmas. During that time the wheat was frequently seen, and 
the boggy places did not appear to be injured by the weather more 
than the rest of the patch. After this, the plants dwindled on those 
swampy spots, and at harvest no grain was reaped from oft* the 
wetter parts of them. What might have happened if those parts of 
the furrows injured by frost, &c. had been kept properly open is 
unknown to me. 

However, this last experiment seems to determine that if spouts 
run so deep that the water furrows cannot be readily carried 
deep enough into the solid ground underneath them, such grounds 
should be kept in herdgrass, and not otherwise cultivated until they 
have been properly drained. 

The first experiment seems as clearly to show, that when the 
water furrows may be readily formed deep enough into the solid 
ground lying under the spouty soil, that such grounds may be ad- 
vantageously employed in growing wheat, and perhaps other winter 
grain. 

This, with various other facts, appear to determine that im- 
mense sums of money have been uselessly expended, (especially in 
England,) in under draining soils which were merely retentive of 
that moisture which either fell or ran in upon them. It may be as 
clearly seen as almost any other thing, that moisture arising from 
these causes can be much more effectually run off by properly wa- 
ter furrowing the grounds when they are cultivated, than by under 
draining. 

The water arising from rain or snow falling or running on a re- 
tentive soil, runs very quickly off narrow lands, properly construct- 
ed, into the water furrows. Much less of it, consequently, sinks 
into the soil, than when a level surface is preserved by under drain- 
ing. If the water furrows be well constructed, it is as quickly con- 
ducted off from the field by them. 

When grounds are under drained, the moisture has to find its 
way through the soil into them. This must be a tedious process ; 
it being evident that water filters very slowly through retentive 
grounds, more especially in a horizontal direction. A few inches 



196 

thickness of retentive clay has been found sufficient to prevent any 
very material escape of water from the cisterns lined with it. 

Practice has long since determined, that such under drains as 
are commonly made to drain retentive soils, are by no means well 
calculated to run off the water after it has found its way into them. 
They are very frequently stopped up by the earth falling into and 
filling the cavities between the various materials laid in them. 
The roots of some plants grow so luxuriantly in them that they 
stop up the passage through which the water ought to pass. The 
fashion of the day, however, will be followed by too many, be the 
consequence what it may. 

It has been urged, that when grounds are under drained, they 
may be covered \vith more plants. It should, however, be recol- 
lected, that there are but few fields from which the soil and plants 
will not be ruinously washed away, unless a sufficiency of open 
furrows be formed to carry off the water arising from rain and 
melting snows. It is also worthy of remark, that plants require air. 
Therefore, it does not appear that the product will be less in con- 
sequence of a part of the grounds being occupied by open furrows, 
if the plants be judiciously arranged on the soil. 

There is, however, seldom any general rule without exceptions. 
Springy places in a field are sometimes so situated that they cannot 
be conveyed from it by open drains, so that the cultivation of the 
grounds will be tolerably convenient. 

In this case, where the price of land is high, and the cultivator's 
capital will admit the enterprise, under drains should be formed. 
They should, however, be far better constructed than those com- 
monly employed in retentive soils. The formation and materials 
used in constructing them ought to be well calculated to prevent, 
(as far as it may be readily done,) the evils enumerated above. 

Now, if this reasoning be correct, and it does not seem that it 
can be rationally controverted, great sums of money have been 
spent in under draining, which, in place of doing good, has effected 
serious injury. 

But nature, reason, and observation, (which should be the far- 
mer's guides,) are too seldom consulted in agricultural pursuits. If 
British agriculturists had been governed by them, they would not 
have suddenly leveled the ridges which their predecessors had in- 
considerately raised. This made a great proportion of the ground 
barren for a considerable time ; also, rendered it incapable of pro- 
moting vegetation without the application of much enriching mat- 
ter.* The manure uselessly wasted in enriching that part of the 

• For the truth of this, see what is said in the third volume of the Memoirs 
of the Philadelphia i^.^icultural Society, page 161, by Mr. Lang-, who advo- 
cates this laborious enterprise, and also borrowing money from banks to effect 
it, notwithstanding he clearly points out the injuiy done to the soil ; also, tells 
us the men who did it were renters, (not owners,) of the ground. He, how- 
ever, intimates that they became wealthy ; still, as he says, several banks were 
originated to aid their enterprise. Ihis appearance of wealth may have been 



197 

ground which had been entirely stripped of all its vegetable mouldy 
would have made an extensive improvement if it had been judi- 
ciously employed. A well directed cultivation would have gradually 
leveled the ridges quite as effectually as it was done by the ex- 
pensive labour employed, and without burying the vegetable mould 
where it could do but little if any good, or turning up the barren and 
inert earth suddenly. But farmers, like the rest of the world, after 
they have acquired more money than good management, (even if it 
be from banks, on loan,) too often make either real or imaginary 
improvements, with inconsiderate and very expensive rapidity. A 
handsome, well formed field, house, or barn, is a pleasing, interest- 
ing object : if either, or the whole, happen to be the prevailing 
fashion of the times, they are but too frequently followed with great 
avidity, without duly considering the merit or demerit of them. 

But to return to the first cultivated patch of wheat. It would 
appear from the result of this experiment that if the soil be tolerably 
well stored with vegetable matter, which has not sunk too far into 
decay, and it be also well water furrowed, wheat will prosper, if the 
grounds be, to a certain extent, spouty, when sown on beds that are 
perfectly flat, and half a perch or eight feet, three inches wide. 

This seems to determine that grass lays which are merely reten- 
tive of moisture, may be safely formed into lands of three-quarters 
of a perch, or eleven feet wide, from centre to centre of the water 
furrows. In this case each furrow slice forms an under drain, which 
remains more or less open until the cultivated crops be removed. 
The open furrows alone will be sufficient to run off the superfluous 
moisture from the grasses; particularly, as more of it is necessary 
to the luxuriant growth of them, than to that of most cultivated 
crops. 

It is difficult, (and perhaps not possible,) to point out the proper 
width^of lands, for soils of different textures, and in different cli- 
mates. I believe, however, that there are but few, if any, soils in high 
latitudes, that should be water furrowed wider, for winter grain than 
one perch, or sixteen feet and a half; and that in lower latitudes 
this width will be generally better than a greater distance, unless 
the soil be very free and open. 

But the cultivator should remember, that whether the lands be 
narrow or wide, if there be hollows in them, the water will lodge 
in them. Therefore, slight drains should be formed to run it off in- 
to the furrows. If this be not done, the plants growing in those hol- 
lows will perish, unless the open texture of the soil may happen to 
filter off the moisture before it is arrested by frost. 

The furrows for spring grain ma^ be formed wider apart than 
those for winter grain : still, it is best not to make them very wide 
asunder, as the grounds may wash, and when the lands are wide, 
it is much more difficult to form cuts to run off the water, (that 

fallacious; but, be this as it may, certain I am that leveling the ridges, as if 
was done by them, was far better calculated to ruin than enrich them. 



198 

may lodge in the hollow places,) into the water furrows. When 
this is not done, the plants are often killed, or turn sallow, and be- 
come sickly and feeble by this excess of moisture. 

The mode of forming and regulating the furrows has been ex- 
plained ; also, how they are to be managed when obstacles obtain, 
or low places occur in the field ; and the cultivator should never 
forget to exclude the waters from any grounds that may happen to 
lie higher than it. This cannot be always done without conducting 
a part or the whole of the water through the field. To prevent the 
grounds from being washed into gullies, or other mischief done, he 
should cause it to pass through as many of the different furrows as 
may be conveniently done, taking care to make them sufficiently 
wide and deep to carry off the water readily. 

Great injury frequently arises from not arresting and properly 
conducting the water from without. It greatly adds to the mois- 
ture within the field, and sadly injures winter grain. When mel- 
ting snows and heavy rains from without, are added to the same 
within the field, the soil and plants are but too often washed away, 
and gullies formed, which greatly injure the grounds : none of which 
would ever appear if the soil were properly water furrowed. 

The same destruction frequently occurs from depending on the 
plough alone for forming water furrows, and by making no provision 
for the water to escape across the head lands. These are too gene- 
rally raised higher than the rest of the field, by the slovenly prac- 
tice of emptying the plough filled with the soil on them, when, if 
proper care was taken, so little of the soil would be carried out on 
them, that a man with a shovel would soon return it back into the 
field. If this were done, the head lands would be kept clean, and 
the grasses growing on them might be mowed, and fed green to the 
cattle, or made into hay ; but to return. When the water in the 
furrows is opposed by the heights in them, which always occurs either 
from rising grounds or obstacles which the plough cannot effectually 
remove, it is forced back and runs over the lands. Thus, the whole 
of it accumulates at the lower parts of the field, and is either backed 
in upon it and drowns the plants, or finding a passage by which it 
may escape, spreads destruction through the course it happens to 
take. Although this and all the evils from an excess of water from 
rain, &c. may be readily avoided ; and with much less labour than 
is generally supposed. 

To illustrate this, I well remember to have sown four acres with 
barley. The soil had been greatly swept away in consequence of 
the water being stopped by a high head land through which it ought 
to have passed. The lands were but of a moderate width; and al- 
though but few obstacles obtained, such as stones, roots, &c. still 
there were some. Yet a man, (and by no means an active one ci- 
ther,) completely cleared out and regulated the whole of the water 
furrows in the course of half a day. He also formed cuts at proper 
places to let the water through the high head land; and drove down 



199 

at the outside of those cuts, stakes to prevent pigs, &c. from getting 
into the field. 

Still I have never seen either shovel, mattock, or axe used to re- 
gulate and clean out water furrows, but by two farmers ; and except 
in their practice but one field, either of winter or summer grain, that 
had been properly water furrowed. This was done by a cultivator 
from England, who also sowed two bushels of wheat to the acre. 
He was an excellent farmer; but of the old school: consequently, 
he prepared the soil for wheat by a naked fallow ; which was well 
executed : of course grass and weeds were subdued. The loss of 
the valuable animal and vegetable matter by this practice, was, no 
question, very injurious to the general improvement of his grounds : 
still it was not felt by the wheat crop. He formed a compost with 
dung, soil and slaked lime. When this (according to his opinion,) 
had been well prepared, it was spread over the clean fallow grounds, 
and ploughed under for the wheat. This not only enriched, but 
also kept the soil open and mellow ; therefore the product was con- 
siderable. 

He, however, never failed to have plentiful crops of weeds among 
his wheat. Thus it appears that the fermentation of dung, even 
when assisted by slaked lime, was insufificient, in his practice, to 
kill the seeds of the weeds contained in the dung and litter mixed 
with it ; although some gentlemen say that fermentation alone will 
destroy them. 

The general neglect of proper water furrowing in this country, 
is actually a disgrace to the agriculture of it. The injurious 
eflfects of this inconsiderate piece of negligence are obviously seen 
in almost every field of grain we pass. Unless the formation of the 
ground, or its texture, be peculiarly calculated to prevent the con- 
sequences arising from this ruinous and too general neglect. 

If a correct estimate could be formed, of the immense number 
of bushels of grain, which are annually lost by this unpardonable 
carelessness, it would so far exceed the bounds of credibility, among 
those who have given but little attention to the subject, that but 
few would believe it possible. 

Observation, however, would soon convince any gentleman who 
travels, of the melancholy truth of this fact. He would not only 
see what has been described above, but also whole fields ruined by 
gullies which originated solely in the neglect of proper water furrow- 
ing. Manj of them are destitute of fencing ; being no longer 
worth cultivation, without first encountering an expense nearly 
equal to the value of the land, even if it had not been so abused. 

He would also see that parallel water furrowing was generally 
practised without cuts across the lands, or any other provision 
made to counteract their effects. Even when that mode of 
management was exactly calculated to inundate the field, destroy 
the produce, and sweep a.wa.y the soil. 

Clover and other grass lays compel this form of water furrowing. 



200 

Still cross cuts in proper directions, and at proper places, would 
effectually prevent any evil from them. 

Farmers, hoM^ever, seem generally to prefer suffering all the in- 
juries which have been described, rather than encounter the ratio- 
nal labour of properly water furrowing their fields. 

If ridges have been formed for the fallow crop, it is still neces- 
sary, after the small grain has been sown, to open proper furrows 
across the lands, wherever the water would become stagnant ; the 
whole of the furrows should be also cleaned out, and properly re- 
gulated, to run oflf the excess of moisture, more especially if winter 
grain be sown. 

When ridges are not necessary for the fallow crop, and the small 
grain is not sown on a grass or clover lay, the cultivator should at- 
tentively view the grounds, and after the small grain is sown, open 
a sufficient number of furrows in such directions as are best calcu- 
lated to run ofli'the superfluous moisture, without observing any uni- 
formity in the course of them. It matters not, if they be even ser- 
pentine, provided that form should be best calculated to run off the 
water with the least labour and expense. Although a sufficiency of 
fall is requisite, too much will certainly form gullies, and also 
wash away the soil; this is the principal reason why the sides of 
hills and declivities are so soon impoverished ; the furrows are too 
generally formed up and down them, and although some form them 
along the sides of the hill, it too often happens that this is done 
wrong. If the furrows have too much fall, gullies will be formed 
in them, and if the fall be too little, or none at all, as sometimes 
happens in part of them, while in other parts, the fall is quite too 
great, the water will find its way over the field and form gullies 
in it. The farmer too often, in forming his furrows along the side 
of a hill, pursues a straight course, without duly considering that 
the inequalities in the surface, require, that his course should be 
governed by them, or the fall in the furrow will be far from being 
regular. 

When furrows are formed along the side of a hill, care should be 
taken, to turn the furrow slice toward the lower side of it, lest 
the water break over; when it is found necessary to go twice in 
the same furrow, the plough should return empty, rather than turn 
the furrow slice up hill. 

It is far better to make too many than too few water furrows 
along the side of a hill; I have observed, that when the furrows 
were sufficient to run off the water from the usual fall of rain, that 
unexpected torrents have formed gullies in the furrows, and by 
running over them done great mischief in other parts of the field. 

It should also be recollected, that when these very heavy rains 
do not occur, the quantity and force of the water is augmented, in 
proportion to the distance between the water furrows, and that 
this alone tends to wash the soil downwards. 



CHAPTER XVIL 



The exhausting properties of maize compared with those of turnips and pota- 
toes. The five original corns commonly used for field planting described ; 
also the mixed varieties formed by them. Observations on the Canadian and 
other corns still smaller ; also on the red, blue and purple corns. The ad- 
vantages to be derived from mixed varieties of maize explained ; also the 
best way to effect this purpose. Improvement in plants is more readily ef- 
fected than the same is done in animals. Climate alters mixed varieties of 
corn greatly and very generally without its being observed by the cultivator. 
Those who live in inhospitable climates, should select their seeds from cli- 
mates which are most like those in which they reside. The advantages to 
be derived from early sowing and planting in cold backward climates. Local 
causes alter climates so much, that neither latitude, nor height, nor the in- 
fluence of surrounding seas can determine the proper time for sowing or 
planting. No reliance can be placed on the Indian rule for sowing and plant- 
ing. Observations on the frosts which sometimes take place in high latitudes 
in August ; also, on the means to be taken to avoid any very serious injury 
from them. Maize is well calculated to withstand drought, and to contend 
with an impoverished soil. It gathers much of the nutriment by which its 
fruit is perfected from the atmosphere. Remarks on the diseases to which 
the corn plant is subject. Observations on the untimely frosts, &c. which 
happened in 1816. 

-A.S there is no fallow crop as highly interesting to American hus- 
bandry as maize, I consider it best to refute the prevailing error, 
that it is peculiarly exhausting, before I describe the proper culti- 
vation of the fallow crops generally grown by us. To do this effec- 
tually, it seems necessary to describe the economy of this invalua- 
ble plant ; although it is said to be a native, still its properties do 
not appear to be well understood. 

It certainly requires considerable nutriment, for it is capable of 
producing much more food for man, and domesticated animals, on 
any soil, be it rich or poor, than any other plant known to us ; but 
notwithstanding this apparently exhausting property of maize, all 
the grain may be sold, and the fertility of the soil increased, if the 
fodder and stalks of the plant be properly applied. 

The fodder from the tops, blades, and husks of a luxuriant acre 
of corn, is equal to the first crop of an averaged acre of grass, for 
feeding cattle. The stalks may be considered equal, if not superior 
to the straw from an averaged acre of wheat, for littering the cattle 
yard. 

I have weighed the dry fodder of maize grown in a mixed crop 
with potatoes, which yielded at the rate of sixty -six bushels of shelled 
corn to the acre. It amounted to one ton, six hundred and thirteen 
pounds gross, viz. blades, husks, and tops. The stalks weighed one 

C c 



202 

ton, seven hundred, also gross ; and no question but an acre occU' 
pied by corn alone would produce more, 

Mr. Watson, near Philadelphia, has for several years grown very 
large potatoes without manure, on thin pasture grounds fed bare. 
He informed me the intervals were eighteen inches; the sets twelve 
inches apart in the rows ; that the plants were thinned early, suffer- 
ing but one to grow from each set ; that they were earthed up but 
once, and after this kept free from weeds by the hand. The produce 
he estimated at one hundred and fifty bushels to the acre ; and said 
they were followed by rye, as the grounds were too thin for wheat. 

This seems to be severe cropping ; however, it shows the great 
value of grass lays ; also the advantage which may be derived from 
arranging plants so that sufficient room be preserved, both in the 
intervals and along the rows, for their roots and tops : likewise from 
thinning them to such numbers as the soil is capable of perfecting. 

The very ingenious J. Tull grew large turnips on thin soils with- 
out manure by drilling them. He left wide intervals between the 
rows, and thinned the plants so that they did not incommode each 
other. The grounds were well pulverised and kept free from weeds. 
His crops, if I recollect right, were by no means inconsiderable, 
when it is considered that he grew them without manure. 

As too few farmers read books on agriculture, there are not many 
of them who know, that turnips and potatoes will produce crops 
worth gathering, without manure, unless on fresh or very rich soils. 
They of course cheerfully apply it for these plants; and finding that 
small grain grows very luxuriantly after them, they are believed to 
possess superior ameliorating properties. While corn, which they 
well know will grow on very poor soils, if it be planted wide enough 
apart, also properly thinned and suckered, they too often grow on 
such grounds, until the soil is ruined by this powerful contender 
with poverty. When these cultivators observe the destruction oc- 
casioned by their own foll}^ they transfer the blame to the corn 
plant, which has been faithfully administering to their comfort and 
wants, while it was possible to contend with an impoverished soil. 

We might, however, with equal propriety condemn a general for 
surrendering a fortress, which he had defended with the utmost 
gallantry, until himself and his brjive troops, reduced by hunger and 
weakness, were incapable of making further resistance. 

The exhausting properties of dissimilar crops are not readily de- 
termined. I have planted corn in double rows, on ridges eleven 
feet asunder, from centre to centre of the double rows. Two dou- 
ble rows of potatoes were planted between the rows of corn, so as 
to give to each of those plants half the soil. As both were cultivated 
by the savage practice of ridging up the plants, the communication 
between the roots of the corn and those of the potatoes, seemed to 
be cut off. 

After those crops were removed, the grounds were sown the same 
fall, with wheat, on one ploughing, executed in the same direction ; 
the rows of corn and potatoes were planted, and a clearing out fur- 



203 

row formed tluough the middle of each corn ridge. This seemed to 
give the potato grounds every advantage. Yet no difference was ob- 
served in the wheat or the grasses following it, either where the 
potatoes and the corn had been grown, although no manure was ap- 
plied either for the wheat or the grasses following it. It would seem 
that both the potato and the corn plant, are well calculated to gather 
much nutritious and fertilizing matter from the atmosphere. 

There are five original corns in use for field planting, in the mid- 
dle and southern states, to wit : the big white and yellow, the little 
white and yellow, and the white Virginia gourdseed. The cobs 
of the tsvo first mentioned are thick and long, the grains are much 
wider than deep, and where the rows of grains meet and unite with 
each other, their sides fall olF almost to nothing. This gives the 
outside ends of the grain a circular form; and communicates to the 
ear an appearance somewhat like a fluted column. This formation 
greatly diminishes the size of the ends and sides of the grains; and 
is the cause of the hard flinty corns being less productive in propor- 
tion to the length and thickness of their cobs, than the gourdseed 
corn. As the little white and the little yellow are formed much 
in the same way, and the cobs considerably smaller, they are still 
less productive than the big white and yellow, but ripen earlier. 

The grain of those four flinty corns are very firm, and without in- 
denture in their outside ends. The two smaller kinds seem to be 
still more hard and solid than the larger ; and the colour of the little 
yellow deeper than that of the big. 

The ears of the Virginia gourdseed are not very long, neither is the 
cob so thick as that of the big white and yellow. But the forma- 
tion of the grain makes the ear very thick. They frequently pro- 
duce from thirty to thirty-two, and sometimes thirty-six rows of 
very long narrow grains of a soft open texture. These grains are 
almost flat, at their outside ends, are also compactly united from 
the cob to the surface of the ear, without any of that fluted appear- 
ance between the rows of grain, which causes the flinty corns to 
be much less productive in proportion to the size of the ears. 

The gourdseed corn ripens later than any other, but is by far the 
most productive. It is invariably white, unless it has been mixed 
with the yellow flinty corns. Then it is called the yellow gourd- 
seed, and too many farmers consider it and most other mixtures 
original corns. I have often heard of original yellow gourdseed 
corn, but after taking much trouble to investigate the fact, could 
never find anything more than a mixture. If there be an original 
yellow gourdseed corn, it has eluded my very attentive inquiry 
from the Atlantic to our most remote western settlements. 

The general texture and colour of this mixture prove its origin. 
Especially as it may be readily grown white, if care be taken to se- 
lect seed annually from ears approaching in form, texture, and colour 
nearest to the original gourdseed corn. 

The corn which commonly passes for the white gourdseed, is 
nothing more than a mixture of it with white flinty corn. There- 



204 

fore those ^vl)0 wish to cultivate the original, will have to grow out 
the other varieties. 

So prevalent are mixtures, that I have never examined a field of 
corn, (where great care had not been taken to select the seed,) which 
did not exhibit evident traces of all the corns in general use for 
field planting, with many others that are not used for this purpose. 

None can be longer or more readily traced than the gourdseed. 
If the smallest perfectly natural indenture appear in the grain of 
the hardcstcorns, those grains, with their descendants, may be grown, 
until a perfectly white gourdseed is obtained, be their colour what 
it may. 

In the northerly divisions of the United States, they frequently 
plant the small Canadian corns. 

These are solid and very early, but have been generally thought 
too small to be very productive, and are seldom planted in fields, 
where the larger corns ripen. 

These corns and others which are still much smaller and earlier, 
are grown by many for early boiling or roasting while green. 

The Canadian corn plant is considerably smaller than the corns 
in general use for field planting, it is also productive in ears. There- 
fore the intervals, as well as the clusters in the row, might be 
closer together. If the soil were as well manured for this kind of corn 
as is done for the larger corns, (when the farmer is well informed 
and able to do it,) very valuable crops might be obtained from it : 
particularly if it were only slightly mixed with the gourdseed corn. 

There are also red, blue, and purple corns, but none of these are 
used for field planting; still having been introduced they too often 
appear in our fields, either in their native colours or in variegated 
or enameled grains. The leaves of the plant are also sometimes 
variegated from the same cause. It is said that a good purple dye 
is formed by using the purple corns for this purpose; and the stalks 
and leaves of this plant are purple, or a shade between that colour 
and green. I have also seen corn with red stalks and leaves, but 
mixed with more or less green. 

As novelty and^ other causes have introduced such a great 
variety into our fields, they will continue to appear in them until 
farmers generally give more attention to the economy of maize, 
and see the necessity of growing out inferior kinds, so far as it may 
be practicable. Although they may be divided almost ad infini- 
tum, they cannot be entirely eradicated. They may, however, be 
readily reduced and kept under, so as not to do any material in- 
jury to the crops, provided the cultivator very carefully and annu- 
ally selects his seed. It may be from the latent remains of these 
mixed varieties that nature, from combining causes, sometimes 
produces plants and animals, more perfect than the class from 
which they sprang. 

This variety as it regards corn proceeds from the farina fecun- 
dans, a light minute substance of a mouldy colour, seen on the 
clothes of those working among the plants, when it is disengaged 



205 

IVoin the tassels. This is wafted far by high winds, and is the cause 
of distant and unthought of mixtures. However, in general it is 
lightly and plentifully diffused through the field, and lodges in suf- 
ficient quantities on the silky fibres which project from the ears. A 
single fibre proceeds from each grain. This has been so constructed 
as to convey the principle of life contained in the farina fecundans 
to the grain from which the fibre springs, even to the further end of 
the cob. This is done with so much certainty that we rarely see 
abortive grains, when the plants have been rendered healthy and 
vigorous by a sufficiency of nutriment and good cultivation. The 
change produced by this mysterious cause is generally gradual. 
VVe first see scattering whitish looking grains on the ears of the 
yellow corn growing among the white, and the reverse on the ears 
of the latter, when grown near to the yellow corns. 

The foregoing facts have induced me to make experiments. The 
result seems to determine, that if nature be judiciously directed 
by art, such mixtures as are best suited for the purpose of farmers, 
in every climate in this country where corn is grown, may be intro- 
duced. Also, that an annual selection of the seed, with care and 
time, will render them subject to very little injurious change ; pro- 
vided the desirable properties of any of the various corns be pro- 
perly blended together. They do not mix minutely, like wine and 
water. On the contrary, like mixed breeds of animals, a large por- 
tion of the valuable properties of any one of them, or of the whole 
five original corns commonly used for field planting, may be com- 
municated to one plant; while the inferior properties of one, or the 
whole, may be nearly grown out. 

In doing this, it would seem that the colour of this mixture may 
be either the purest white, or a yellow, nearly, or perhaps quite, as 
deep and bright as the colour of the flinty yellow corns : also, that 
the economy of the plant formed by these mixtures may be render- 
ed sufficiently early to ripen in any climate that is not very un- 
friendly to the later corns, either from powerful local causes, or 
from being very far north. For climates which are more favourable, 
a mixed variety may be formed which will be much more productive 
than the corns which are at this time commonly grown in them. 

We may frequently see ears that ripen early, possess more of the 
valuable properties of the late and larger corns, than others in the 
same field, and grown from the same kind of seed that ripens later. 
We may also observe some ears with long yellow grains growing on 
them, and other ears growing on the same field, which produce pale, 
yellow, short grains, although grown from the same mixture of seed. 
Notwithstanding the gourdseed grows and ears higher than any 
other variety, still we sometimes see, when it is mixed with the 
flinty corns, that some plants will grow, and also ear, much lower 
than others. 

Almost every desirable property in domesticated animals has been 
lately obtained by judicious breeders of live stock. It would seem 



206 

that com wliicli would admit of an annual improvement, oft'ers a 
better prospect of success in this way than animals. 

When this object is obtained, and we become acquainted with the 
proper arrangement of the plants in our fields, so as to promote the 
utmost product, the crops of maize will by far exceed any estimate 
which would at this time be considered probable by those who have 
not carefully examined the economy of this plant. 

It should, however, never be forgotten that a sufficiency of nutri- 
ment and good cultivation are quite as necessary to increase and 
perpetuate the size of grain, as plentiful and nutritious food, and 
proper care and management, are to accomplish the same in ani- 
mals. 

My ears of maize are now at least one-third larger, on an average, 
than were the ears procured three years ago from Huntingdon for 
seed. The same may be also said of some white, flinty corn, pro- 
cured by my neighbour, Mr. H. Philips, from near Erie, for seed. 
The grain of the spring wheat, wljich has been sown in the better 
grounds here, and well cultivated, is vastly larger than was the seed 
first procured, or is the same grain grown here on impoverished or 
badly cultivated soils. It is not locality, but bad cultivation, a poor 
soil, and slovenly farmers, that degenerate seeds. 

They are invariably improved in the hands of an attentive culti- 
vator, who carefully grows, or picks out such mixtures as he does 
not approve. Still some gentlemen who ought to know better, advo- 
cate change. However, in general, a much better and speedier 
change in the properties of animals and seeds may be effected by 
the introduction of foreign aid, through the medium of mixture. 
Consequently, the theory of breeding in and in has been carried too 
far. This error may have proceeded from the cattle jockies, who, 
while they were slyly making speedy alterations, both in the size 
and form of animals, by foreign aid, were picking the pockets of the 
inconsiderate gentleman farmer by amusing him with ideas which 
are certainly inconsistent with actual practice. But to return to 
the economy of maize. 

' • The quantity of the gourdseed corn mixed with the flinty yellow 
corns, may be determined, so as to answer the farmer's purpose. 
When the proportion of the former greatly predominates, the grains 
are pale, very long and narrow, and the outside ends of them are 
so flat that but little of the indenture is seen. As the portion of 
gourdseed decreases in the mixture, the grains shorten, become 
wider, and their outside ends grow thicker. The indentures, also, 
become larger and rounder, until the harder corns get the ascend- 
ancy. After this, the outside ends of the grains become thicker and 
more circular. They also grow wider, and the fluted appearance 
between the rows increases. The indentures also decrease in siee 
until they disappear, and the yellow, flinty variety is formed. But, 
as I believe, not so fully but that the latent remains of mixture will 
forever subject it to more or less change. 

It is more difficult to determine the quantity of big and little 



207 

yellow corns, which may happen to be mixed with the gourdseed; 
and at the same time with each other. However, by attention, a 
tolerably correct opinion of this may be formed. The grain of the 
big yellow is much wider, and nothing like so deep as that of the 
gourdseed ; and although the grain of the little yellow is not so 
wide and deep as that of the big, still it is wider than the gourd- 
seed; and its colour is deeper than that of the big yellow, and its 
cobs are much slimmer, as well as shorter. 

' When a mixture with the big yellow and gourdseed is desirable, 
care should be taken, in growing out the little yellow, to preserve 
as much as possible of the deep yellow tinge and solidity communi- 
cated to the grain by this variety, and also of its property to ripen 
early. '' 

The soft, open texture of the gourdseed renders it unfit for ex- 
portation, unless it be kiln dried. This has given rise to an un- 
founded prejudice among the shippers of this grain, in favour of the 
yellow corns, although they are not more solid than the white flinty 
varieties. However, while this prejudice continues, it is best for 
those who depend on selling it for shipping, to mix the gourdseed 
with the yellow flints, and for those who consume the produce on 
their own farms, or can readily sell the white corns, to form mix- 
tures with them and the gourdseed. It is thought that the white 
corns are the most productive, and ripen earlier than the yellow ; 
but of this I know nothing certain, having generally grown the yel- 
low. There can, however, be no question but that the white fur- 
nishes much handsomer meal for culinary purposes. It is also free 
from that strong taste so readily distinguished by those who have 
been accustomed to use the white ; but as most of the Pennsylvania 
farmers, and cultivators still further north, have been used to eat 
the yellow, and habit causes most kinds of food to become agreea- 
ble, they seem generally to prefer the strong taste of this variety to 
the much milder and pleasanter taste of the white. However, in 
the countries where neither is grown, and to which it is often export- 
ed, there can be but little doubt that the white would find a readier 
market, and that the demand for this very nutritious grain would 
greatly increase, if none but the white were exported : especially, 
if laws were passed prohibiting the exportation of maize until after 
it had been kiln dried. 

I believe there is no grain that will keep longer or safer than 
corn, if it be kept on the cob in open dry cribs, and the climate 
also be dry, unless the weevil be introduced by not carefully clean- 
ing the cribs of every vestige of the old grain and vegetable mat- 
ters introduced with it. 

Flinty corns, after they have been well dried in such cribs, may 
be shipped in tight, dry vessels, with tolerable safety, to the West 
Indies : but longer voyages subject this grain to greater injuries, 
although it may arrive at port in tolerable safety ; a little damp 
communicates a musty taste to maize, and if this does not happen. 



208 

it is often spoiled by lying in bulk after it arrives, and will be con- 
sidered much less valuable on this account. 

Either the big yellow or white should be mixed with the gourd- 
seed, for planting in every climate where this mixture will certainly 
ripen. Their cobs being very long, and the grain so much wider 
and deeper than those of the little yellow or white, the mixture with 
them will be much more productive. It is also thought, that the 
length of the ear communicated by the big yellow or white, will 
fully compensate for the shortening the grains of the gourdseed : 
therefore, if the mixture be properly formed, its product may even 
exceed that of the original gourdseed corn ; I have measured the 
product from ears of this mixture, which, when shelled, yielded a 
full pint of corn, after they had lain twelve months in a very dry 
place, although the mixture had not been well improved. 

The little yellovv and white, being earlier than the big, they 
should form mixtures with the gourdseed corn for being grown in 
climates more unfavourable for maize. But whoever may form 
either of those mixtures, will find, that he must grow out either the 
big or little flinty corns, with many others, as they are more or less 
mixed. 

The speediest and best way to form either of those mixtures, is 
to select one ear that may possess most of the desirable properties 
united in it, and to plant the seed where the farina fecundans from 
the general crop cannot readily obtain access. If it happen to the 
cultivators, as it has done with me, he will certainly find from the 
growth of this seed many ears in his patch, very much like the ear 
that grew the seed, and many very unlike it; however, it may be 
that he will find some ears approaching nearer to the variety which 
he wishes to form than the original ear ; if so, he will of course se- 
lect the best, and go on in the same way, until he has full enough 
for planting his general crop. After this, he should aim at an in- 
creased improvement, by carefully selecting his seed annually for 
the ensuing crop. 

It is too commonly believed, that corn growing on slim cobs, is 
more productive than that grown on thicK ones ; nothing can be 
more repugnant to common sense and observation ; for on the same 
principle they might believe, that a small surface of soil would pro- 
duce more than a larger one ; yet if the ears of the slim cobs are 
much longer, or the grains considerably deeper than the corns pro- 
ducing thicker cobs, the product from the slim ones may be more 
to the acre. I have, however, never seen either of these causes pro- 
duce this effect, except in the gourdseed corn, for its cob though 
not so small as that of several other corns, is smaller in proportion 
to the length of the grain than any of them. 

Doctor Logan, and Mr. Joseph Cooper, both farm in the vicinity 
of Philadelphia; the corn grown by them, has been planted here, 
and did not ripen ; this failure puzzled me exceedingly at first ; as 
corns partaking quite as much, or perhaps more of the gourdseed, 
became ripe, though planted at the same time, and in the same soil, 



209 

1 have, however, since seen the cause; farmers every where gene- 
rally plant too late; even in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, 
corn is sometimes ruined by frost, from this cause alone. 

In colder climates or situations rendered cold by local causes, it 
is very frequently destroyed, or greatly injured ; although in these 
situations, the little yellow or white is commonly planted ; when 
in many of them the larger corns would prosper, if proper manage- 
ment prevailed. 

The injury from frosts falls heavi^t on the plants that ripen the 
latest. When the farmer selects his seed, he naturally rejects the 
injured ears, and the largest ears only of that variety, which may 
be preferred by him, are laid by for that purpose. As early ripen- 
ing is not in every instance confined to the smaller or less produc- 
tive ears, when the seed is composed of varieties, mixed, or blended 
together, either by art or accident, the farmer, without knowing any 
thing of the cause which produces the effect, gradually alters the 
economy of the plants to suit the climate. As this selection is 
commonly made annually, especially if the farmer suspects thait 
frost has injured the vegetative powers of a part of his crop, he is . 
sure to obtain the largest sound ears, and at the same time an ear- 
lier variety, than that part of his crop which had been injured by 
frost. 

It would also seem, that this accidental mode of selecting seed in 
more northerly climates, diminished the height of the plants : alsd, 
the height of their earing, if grown from mixed varieties. As high 
growing plants are the most disposed to grow later ears, the injury 
from frost falls heaviest on them, and they are diminished, and al- 
though low growing plants are far less disposed to furnish large ears, 
still this sometimes happens, and when it occurs, they generally 
ripen early, and are not injured by frost. 

The corns had from Doctor Logan, and Mr. Cooper, as well as 
from Ohio, and various other places, where the grounds lay much 
lower than they do here, have invariably, so far as my observation 
extends, grown and eared much higher than corn growing beside 
them, which had been accommodated to our climate, although the 
latter seemed to partake quite as much, or perhaps more, of the use- 
ful properties of the gourdse.ed corn. 

The foregoing facts should teach those residing in the colder cli- 
mates, to procure their seeds, when practicable, from climates not 
warmer than their own. When the best kinds cannot be got in 
this way, they should sow and plant their general crops with seed 
known to prosper, and use the better seeds had from warmer situ- 
iations sparingly and carefully, until they become accommodated to 
the climate, or until it is found that they will not prosper in it. 

This practice may be also very useful to those who live in, or are 
about to remove to an inhospitable climate, where but little valuable 
Vegetation grows. 

If seeds be selected from a country, the nearest approaching to the 
Miethey now mean to inhabit, or in which they already reside, it is 

Dd 



210 

more than probable they would succeed. Notwithstanding they might 
not be equal to the same plants grown in better climates, still they 
would be invaluable where no better could be had ; and time might 
enable the cultivator or his posterity to grow much better. For after 
the better plants had been, either from design, or accident, gradually 
and frequently removed still further north, though climates opposed 
to their natural habits, they might in the course of time be habit- 
uated to withstand even the severe cold of very high latitudes. 

It should, however, be remqpibered, that where the seasons are 
short, planting and sowing as early as frost will permit, is of the ut- 
most consequence. The contrary practice has completely excluded 
many valuable plants which would have produced abundantly, if 
farmers had not considered it necessary to postpone planting and 
sowing, until the grounds were, agreeably to their opinions, suffi- 
ciently warm. This is a fatal error, especially as the ground is 
frequently warmer, and the soil better calculated to promote vege- 
tation, in the more early part of spring, than it is at the remote pe- 
riods they fix on for planting and sowing. After the plants have 
taken root, many kinds which are now considered very tender, are 
nothing like so susceptible of serious injury from frost as farmers 
andgardeners too generally suppose. If they should happen to be 
destroyed, they may often be resown or replanted, in time to stand 
on an equal footing with those planted or sown at the usual time. 
But this labour and expense may be generally avoided, by observing 
what degree of frost the plants will bear without material injury, and 
the time in the spring, when, in the common course of events, such 
frosts are not to be expected. 

It is thought that the spring opens ten or fifteen days later here, 
than in the vicinity of Philadelphia, where I resided several years 
previously to my removal to this place early in June, 1812. Still 
I plant corn here, much earlier than it is planted there, to wit, 
from the 23d of April to the 1st of May, as the season may happen 
to suit. From the 10th to the 15th of May, was the common time 
of planting in the neighbourhood from which I removed, but some 
planted much later even than this, as it too often happened that cold 
rains or other causes, determined them to wait until the ground was 
warmed. 

When I planted my corn on the 1st day of May, 1814, a few clus- 
ters had been planted by a neighbour in his garden, on the 9th of 
April. These plants were in general cut olF two or three times by 
frost, yet they maintained a superiority over the corn planted by me 
on the 1st of May, until the growth of the peas and beans planted 
quite too close to the maize, greatly injured it. As there had been 
a hog pen in one end of my patch, it was very clearly seen that su- 
periority of soil was not the cause of this marked difference. 

When corn is planted very early, it is commonly severely affected 
by frost; so much so, that many of the plants are cut off by th^ 
ground. This is unquestionably an injury to which no judicious 
farmer would expose the plant, if the advantages obtained by very 



211 

early planting, could be had by planting later. Still if the roots 
remain unhurt, they are of consequence established, and very soon 
repair the injury done above the soil, after the frost ceases to act 
on the plants. Of course they take the lead, and will maintain their 
superiority over later planted corn. The ears also fill and ripen 
much better in northerly climates from this practice. 

The shooting and filling of them take place when the heat of the 
sun is much greater; and when less cloudy, cold, dripping weather 
prevails, and the crop is nothing like so liable to be injured by frost. 
The grounds are also sooner ready for crops sown in the fall. This 
mode of management will often enable the cultivator to grow the 
large and more productive corns, in climates where they have been 
abandoned, from observing that they did not ripen when planted at 
the usual time. 

When I introduced the large yellow gourdseed corn, from seed 
procured from Huntingdon county, every farmer here ridiculed the 
idea of attempting to grow corn of this description. They consi- 
dered the soil and climate hostile to the growth even of the smaller 
corns, and but little was planted. As they waited until the earth 
was warmed before they planted, the crops were frequently either 
destroyed, or greatly injured by frost. 

I had, however, seen the effects of early planting, and knew that 
these men liad been more or less conversant with it ever since they 
had been old enough to assist in the labour done on a farm. They 
were ignorant of the properties of maize, merely from not having 
sufficiently considered that a farmer ought to endeavour to become 
acquainted with the economy of the plants cultivated by him. 

If they had thought of this, they might have seen that the corn 
planted by them, and every body else, for growing early roasting 
and boiling ears, was generally put into the ground much sooner 
than that planted in fields. Also, that the corn planted foi; early 
use always succeeded, unless the roots were materially injured by 
frost ; and that this seldom happened : as actual and long continued 
practice in their gardens had taught them, that it was unsafe to 
plant for this purpose until material danger from frost had passed 
by. For although gentlemen who keep gardeners, and those who 
grow early corn for market, plant the very early varieties for green 
corn, farmers very often plant the same kind which is grown in 
their fields. 

As it seldom occurs that the whole of the ears are pulled off 
when green, practice, in his garden, might long since have taught 
the farmer, that early planted corn, in cold, backward climates, 
eared and filled much better than corn planted at the usual time : 
also, that the causes of this were more sun, less cold, cloudy, fall- 
ing weather, and frost, during the shooting and filling of the ears, 
and the hardening of the grain. The natural conclusions drawn 
from those facts, if they had been duly considered, must have been 
that the same good effects would occur in their fields if the same 
practice were pursued ; also, that by early planting they would 



212 

avoid that destructiot) of their crops which so often occurs in high 
latitudes, merely from planting quite too late. 

Notwithstanding these very interesting facts have been as obvious 
ever since corn has been planted by Europeans and their descen- 
dants in this country, 1 do not recollect ever to have heard any thing 
said, or to have seen any thing written, on this subject. 

Local causes alter climates so much, that the only sure criterion 
by which we may determine how soon corn or other seeds may be 
planted in many neighbourhoods, is to observe when, in the general 
course of events, this may be done without risk of any material in- 
jury from frost. Tli^ ridge of quite a low mountain, or, indeed, the 
ridge of a high hill, will make%' difference of several days in the 
proper time of planting or sowing in the valleys on the opposite 
sides of them ; although these valleys be not more than two or three 
miles apart. Other causes, also, produce similar effects. ' 

This shows the very great advantages which would be derived 
if intelligent farmers, in every neighbourhood, would take notes on 
the weather, and its effects on vegetation. 

Neither latitude, nor height, nor the influence of surrounding 
seas, can determine this subject sufficiently correct for agricultural 
purposes. 

No kind of dependance can be placed on the Indian rule for 
planting or sowing. It may be of some use to them, whose obser- 
vation is limited greatly by savage ignorance, but of none to us. We 
sometimes see the same vegetation which usually takes place in 
May, about the time corn is commonly planted, occur in February, 
or the fore part of March ; when no rational cultivator would plant 
corn in any part of Pennsylvania where I have been. 

The corn plant is easily destroyed by frost in the fall, being then 
debilitated by age, or exerting all its powers to perfect its fruit. 
But when young, it is much hardier than is generally supposed. I 
have observed it for several days together coming up through the 
heat of the day, although the surface of the soil had been slightly 
frozen in the morning. 

The spring after I removed to this place, Dr, Dewees, with Mr. 
Philips and myself, planted the yellow gourdseed corn on the 30th 
of April and the 1st of Ma}'. The season continued sufficiently 
mild to establish the roots of the plants, although many of their 
tops were severely affected by frost, and some of them cut off 
nearly level with the ground. The weather, after we had planted, 
was not quite so favourable, and continued to be such as farmers 
too generally consider unfit for planting maize. 

Forty or fifty miles around us, (except two fields in this neigh- 
bourhood, which the cultivators planted earlier than usual,) but lit- 
tle corn was made : a great many fields were of so little worth that 
scarcely any grain was gathered from them, although the two first 
mentioned crops were considered excellent by all who saw them. 

Farmers attributed this failure in their corn crops, to a continua- 
tion of wet, cool weather, through the spring and fore part of the 



213 

summer, joined with a severe drought in the latter part of the sea 
son. But as the two luxuriant fields mentioned above were sub- 
jected to the same events, I can see no cause for this marked failure 
in the crops generally, except procrastinating planting until the 
earth was thought to be sufficiently warmed ; which did not happen 
until it was'too late to grow even the smaller corns with tolerable 
advantage, unless the latter part of the season had been very fa- 
vourable. 

No rain fell on my field from the SOth of July to the 1st of Sep- 
tember; during which time moisture is particularly required in this 
climate, to fill the ears : yet I had never grown better ears before. 

If the farmers had planted as early as 1 did, and cultivated their 
fields well, no question the same would have occurred in their corn 
crops ; for the economy of this invaluable plant is well calculated 
to withstand the severest drought. 

My field of corn, planted last spring, (1815,) with the same kind 
of seed, on the 24th and 25th of April, was doomed to withstand 
much severer frost than that just mentioned. 

On the 15th and 16th of May the ground was frozen so hard that 
1 peeled off the soil in cakes, to nearly, if not quite, three-quarters 
of an inch thick, and observed loose particles of congealed mois> 
ture still deeper than this. 

Many of the plants were cut off by the ground, and yet I have 
never grown so large a crop of maize. It was still more remarka- 
ble, that some of the plants which were growing from seed, that by 
inattention was scarcely covered with soil, were not destroyed. It 
would appear that the earth screened the roots from the too power- 
ful effects of the sun, and that a gradual thaw preserved them from 
injury. 

Beside the early and later frosts, high latitudes are subject to a 
frost that sometimes takes place from the 20th to the latter end of 
August. This, when it happens to be severe, injures buckwheat and 
maize exceedingly, and sometimes entirely destroys those crops, 
when planted in low bottoms. 

Their severity at this season of the year seems to arise from the 
preceding heats, by which the air is so much rarified that it would 
appear the consequence is a gust from the northward. This intro- 
duces torrents of cold air so suddenly that its temperature can be 
but little altered by passing through milder regions than those from 
which it proceeded ; and the effects are sometimes as fatal as they 
are sudden. 

When the atmosphere has had its temperature reduced by those, 
or milder means, there appears to be but little danger from severe 
frosts. Not only so far as my limited observation extends, but 
also from what I can learn from those who have lived here more 
than twenty years. They calculate on a moderate fall if the 
August court, (which commences in the latter part of that month,) 
passes by without injury from frost. As in that case frost seems 



214 

to be gradually introduced, as in warmer climates, by the seasons 
advancing. 

I expect the effects of this frost would be generally fatal in very 
level valleys, surrounded by hills. In a country where gentle hills 
and dales prevail, it is not so much to be dreaded, if the farmer 
manages properly. 

I have seen corn and buckwheat on but moderate elevations, so 
little affected, that it required scrutiny to observe the traces of 
frost among the crops, while other crops of the same description 
growing in bottoms, and but a little distance from them, were either 
ruined, or sadly injured. 

Cold, heavy air, like water, rushes down from the heights and 
inundates the bottoms ; still, if considerable creeks or rivers run 
through, or pass by the bottoms, the crops are often preserved by 
the warm exhalations arising from the water; this with the fogs that 
are generally caused by the moisture, warms the air, and prevents 
frost. When these causes are not suflBcient to prevent it, the fog 
frequently obstructs the rays of the sun, until the frozen plants are 
gradually thawed ; by wliich means they are often saved from 
serious injury. 

The most severe and injurious frost of this kind which I have 
seen, or that has been known by the oldest settler here, to have 
happened, was ushered in by a gust in the evening, on the £lst 
of August, when the ground was quite dry, with but a sprinkle of 
rain, and the sun shone clearly the next day. 

This induced me to believe, that if considerable rain had accom- 
panied the gust, the warmth of the earth at this season of the year 
would have produced sufficient vapour to have greatly reduced, or 
perhaps entirely prevented the injury sustained in the bottoms by 
this frost.* 

The mixed crop of maize, and kidney bunch beans, which will be 
hereafter described, was at this time growing on a flat of ground, 
with a hill and flat above them. They sustained no injury, except 
the drooping of the points of some few of the leaves of the corn; 
while buckwheat growing on a bottom directly opposite, and not 
more than twenty perches distant from the corn and beans, was 
nearly destroyed. 

No maize was injured by this frost, except one field of yellow 
gourdseed corn, planted rather too late, and in a low bottom ; this 

• This opinion seems to have been in some measure confirmed from what 
has since happened. On the 25th of August, 1817, considerable rain fell, ac- 
companied by a gust from the northward, which introduced torrents of cold 
»ir. On the ensuing morning I observed ice formed in some milk crocks stand- 
ing on a very low shed in my back yard ; also, that ice had been formed on, and 
greatly stiffened some of the leaves ot the corn growing in my garden ; like- 
wise, that the fog arising from the exhalations from the earth had condensed 
on the fence rails, and the roofs of the houses, in sufficient quantities to cause 
them to look as white as they would have done if a slight snow had fallen. The 
sun dispersed the fog at a very early hour, but not before the most of the 
frozen plants were thawed, consequently no serious injury was done. 



215 

was much hurt, still there were some fine ears which escaped with- 
out injury. This goes far toward establishing the theory, that frost 
greatly assists the farmer in cold climates, in the selection of such 
seed as suits his purpose best. 

I am induced to believe, from what happened in consequence of 
this frost, together with the same partial damage done by the same 
frost in Penn's Valley, and other places not further distant from 
this neighbourhood, that corn may be readily preserved from any 
very serious injury from the frosts which may happen in August, if 
the larger varieties be planted on the higher grounds, and the 
smaller corns that ripen very early in the bottoms : particularly, as 
I have seen here an accidental mixture of the gourdseed, with a 
very early small white flinty corn, which seems to be productive. 
One of my neighbours brought me an ear of it on the 29th of August, 
which was hard ; it would seem that a variety might be formed 
from this corn, which would ripen sufficiently early to escape any 
very material injury from the frost, that sometimes happens in Au- 
gust, if grown in this neighbourhood on the lower grounds. It 
should, however, be recollected, that this is not to be expected, un- 
less the cultivator plants as early as the season will permit ; but 
perhaps not quite as soon on the lower grounds, as on the ridges, 
for frost is severer in the spring, as well as in the fall on the 
bottoms. 

The roots and stem of maize spring from the heart of the grain ; 
the former grows from one to two or more inches long, before the 
latter appears, and progresses so very rapidly, that if pulled up from 
a loose soil, they will measure about twelve inciies long, when the 
stem is only about three inches high, although their finer fibres must 
be left in the ground by this rude operation. 

The stem protrudes itself through the soil in the form of a bod- 
kin, and is composed of leaves rolled very compactly together ; 
the first two leaves expand soon after the plant penetrates the soil; 
and other rolled leaves continue to unfold in succession from the 
crown of the plant, until the tassel appears wrapped up in its own 
leaves : these also gradually spread themselves, until the plant is 
fully formed. 

The leaves increase in width and length from the ground, up to 
where the most perfect ear is formed ; after this, they decrease in 
length and width, more rapidly than they increased below, and this 
decrease is regularly maintained even to the uppermost leaf, which 
forms itself a little below the tassel. 

One leaf grows from every joint in the stalk, but in such a way as 
to alternate sides ; the first formed leaf, and after this, every leaf 
in regular succession, clasps the stalk closely, until it approaches 
near to the under side of the leaf above ; after this, it grows out 
from the stalk, and a beautiful fanlike appearance is at length pro- 
duced, which is not equalled by any other annual plant cultivated 
for the value of its fruit: especially, when the large luxuriant ears 
display at their points, elegant tufts of silky fibres, which vary in 
colour when mixtures form the seed. 



216 

The height of this plant differs much. The smallest variety that 
has been noticed by me, did not seem to exceed three feet in height. 
The largest plants which I have seen, measured but thirteen feet. 
I have, however, heard of some which attained the height of seven- 
teen feet. These must have been grown on a very rich as well as 
a very deep and open, free soil. 

The lateral roots of maize soon spread through the whole soil. 
The finger roots, as they are sometimes called, dip much deeper. 
I have seen them traced two feet below the surface of the soil, by a 
grubbing hoe, in the hands of a rugged workman. How much further 
their finer fibres might have gone, was not ascertained by me, but 
this convinced me, that the roots of maize were capable of drawing 
very much moisture, and some nutriment, from a much greater depth 
than most of the plants cultivated by us. Also, that these manures 
and smaller roots, were better calculated to effect this very inter- 
esting purpose, than they would have been if nature had formed the 
whole of them into one single taproot, which extended no deeper. 
This is one cause among many others, why maize is capable of con- 
tending so powerfully with poverty, and withstanding severe and 
continued drought, better than most other cultivated plants. This 
should convince us that a plant capable of drawing such important 
supplies from beyond the range of plants in general, will not prove 
peculiarly exhausting if it be treated fairly, by having as much ma- 
nure, or as good a soil appropriated for it, as is commonly used for 
those plants which farmers in general have not learned to grow on 
poor soils without manure. 

The prop roots of maize appear about, or a little before, the tas- 
sels may be seen. They proceed from the joint at or near the sur- 
face of the soil. They are numerous, and form a circle round the 
plant. That portion of them which grows outside of the ground, is 
hard and woody, similar to the substance which forms the outside 
of the stalk ; but so soon as they penetrate the soil, they become 
softer, and spread through it in search of nutriment : this is just at 
the time the plant requires most of it. The tassel and the top of 
the plants have after this to attain their full size, and the farina 
fecundans, which impregnates the grain, is to be formed. The ears 
now begin to shoot, and they are also to be filled and perfected. 

The prop roots are exactly calculated to support the weight of 
the tassels and ears, during high winds, and when the grounds are 
softened by rain. But farmers too generally thwart this simple but 
wise arrangement of nature, by hilling, or ridging up the plants. 
These inconsiderate operations not only cut and rend the roots, but 
also compel the plants to grow new sets of prop noots, from the 
joints above. Those seldom get sufiiciently established in time to 
support the weight and height of the tassels and ears ; and many of 
the plants are of consequence blown down, or fall by their own 
weight alone, when the grounds have been previously much softened 
by rain. 

Maize, from its woody texture, and commanding size, might (with • 



217 

out straining the point very far,) be called an annual bread tree, 
producing the best of all corns, and at the same time crops, which 
'in magnitude far exceed that of any other grain. Also tops, husks 
and leaves, which can be readily gathered; and furnish abundant fod- 
der for cattle, equal to the best hay; and independent of this, the 
stalks supply much valuable litter for the cattle yard. 

That part of the leaf which surrounds the stalk, and adheres so 
closely that it does not permit a particle of moisture to escape, is 
very interesting. The peculiar insertion of the leaf, together with 
the formation of that part of the stalk covered by it, forms a cavity 
for the reception of the rich moisture, which is gathered into it from 
the atmosphere by the leaves, and for which they^re most admirably 
formed.* 

The shoots, which form the car, commence at the joint in contact 
with the ground. If the soil be rich or highly manured, they issue 
from every joint up to where the uppermost ear is formed at the 
footstalk of the tassel. This last or highest up ear, is almost inva- 
riably the largest, and ripens soonest. It seldom occurs that more 
than two ears are perfected on one stalk, unless the clusters of 
plants are very distant from each other, and but few plants stand 
in each cluster. If the plants stand thick on the ground, but one 
ear is commonly perfected by each of them. The abortive ear shoots 
are called suckers. These are commonly removed, so far as the 
farmer considers conducive to the welfare of his crop. This should 
be done so soon as they are large enough to be pulled off effectually. 
No part of them should be left adhering to the stalk, or they will 
grow again from the stub left behind. 

If this operation be not early commenced and frequently repeated, 
they become so numerous and large in fields highly manured, espe- 
cially if the plants stand thin on the ground, that they are greatly 
injured. Not only from the loss of nutriment, but also from the 
many and large wounds inflicted by the removal of them. 

After careful experiment in the removal of suckers, I now pull 
none above the joint in contact with the ground ; and would not 
remove these, if they did not take root in the soil, and by this 
means become powerful exhausters. Although it commonly happens 
that several ear shoots above this point prove abortive, no sucker 
can be removed without injuring the leaf which binds it to the stalk; 
and so much that it is commonly rendered altogether incapable of 
conducting moisture. If it be not so extensively injured, the re- 
ceptacle formed by it is so much deranged by this operation that it 
cannot retain the slight portion which may happen to be conducted 
by the leaf into it. 

I am still further encouraged to let so many of these abortive 
ears stand, as I have observed that so soon as nature has deter- 

* The highly important and extensive usefulness of the moisture thus ga- 
thered into these receptacles, has been explained in my book on Vegetation 
and Manures, see from page 55 to page 57. 

R e 



218 

mined (he number of ears, which existing circumstances maj enable 
her to fill, all her efforts are directed to them; and the abortive 
ones immediately dwindle, and finally wither: and, for aught we 
know to the contrary, nature may cause them to part with the rich 
matters they had previously gathered, and apply this nutriment to 
assist in maturing her favourites. 

I trust it will appear from what has been advanced, that in place of 
abusing this invahiable plant, as an exhauster of the soil, we should 
consider it the pride and boast of American husbandry, as mathe- 
matical demonstration cannot well afford stronger proof than has 
been produced, that maize gathers a large portion of the nutriment 
necessary to perfect its fruit from the atmosphere. 

Still, it should Be remembered that sufficient nutriment, provided 
in the soil, is absolutely necessary to enable it to do this very ex- 
tensively. Therefore, " let not what God has joined together, by 
man be put asunder," by vain philosophical theories and sophistical 
reasonings. Such as, that the chief use of the soil is merely to sup- 
port the plants in their proper place, or that cultivation will super- 
cede the necessity of keeping the soil well stored with animal and 
vegetable matter. 

The middle path is certainly the path of reason and experience, 
and should be carefully and diligently pursued by the practical far- 
mer, leaving those ideal speculations for the amusement of the 
learned. 

There is no corn crop grown by us which is so certain as maize. 
Its diseases are few, and most, if not all of them, proceed from an 
inconsiderate cultivation. I do not recollect ever to have seen them 
so extensive in any field as to do any very material injury to the 
crop. 

It withstands drought and contends with poverty better than most 
other plants cultivated by us, either for the value of their grain or 
roots. It may be advantageously grown in any soil fitjfor cultiva- 
tion ; not excepting blowing sands, or retentive clay. 

Still, this crop fails nearly as often as any other; especially in 
the higher latitudes, or situations rendered cold from local causes. 
It cannot withstand grass or w6eds, and is too generally planted by 
far too late. The seed is also covered too deep, as well as oppressed 
with clods, stones, or any other rubbish near at hand, which pre- 
vents the plant from coming up. Too little seed is planted to 
secure a sufficiency of plants, after birds and quadrupeds have taken 
that portion which even proper vigilance cannot prevent. 

When the field has been planted, in place of being guarded, so 
soon as the first plants make their appearance above the soil, it is 
commonly left a prey to birds and quadrupeds ; although it is well 
known that some of these intruders will continue to scratch up the 
plants while a vestige of the seed remains at the roots. 

If the corn escape these depredations, birds and quadrupeds at- 
tack the ears so soon as the grain begins to harden. In place of 
defending the crop until it be gathered, too many leave it unpro- 



2i9 

' ected, to be devoured by them, for weeks, and, indeed, sometimes 
lor months after it should have been gathered. -' 

In all the fields of maize which have been examined by me, some 
plants entirely barren have been seen without any apparent cause. 

The fungus appears to be principally occasioned by wounds in- 
flicted during cultivation. The plants commonly bleed from these 
wounds, and a fungus is formed. This, when in contact with the 
ear, is certain destruction to it, unless the fungus be soon seen and 
removed. When it is formed on other parts of the plant, it fre- 
quently corrodes them so much that they are incapable of perfect- 
ing their fruit. The only remedy known to me is speedy removal, 
and repeating the operation if the fungus should reappear: which 
generally occurs. But even this tedious remedy is too often found 
insufficient. It is, therefore, far better not to create this disease, 
by mangling the plants, either by the savage practice of harrowing 
over them, or by covering them with clods, stones, or sods, as is too 
often done by the inconsiderate mode of hilling or ridging them up. 
Although many of the plants wounded by these injudicious prac- 
tices survive, and appear to flourish, even when the fungus is not re- 
moved, still, numbers of them become too debilitated to perfect 
their fruit. 

A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but sel- 
dom does much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes ex- 
tensive. However, the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks 
and causes them to decay. 

When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant 
produces little or no grain ; but I have never seen very extensive 
injury done by this disease. The cause of it is unknown to me. It 
may, however, proceed from the bruises and wounds inflicted by an 
inconsiderate cultivation ; especially as the tassel, wrapped in its 
own leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. 
Too many farmers think the health and vigour of the plants are 
greatly promoted by harrowing over them, and mangling their tops 
while they are young. Also, by cutting and rending the roots of 
them, provided this be not done after the tassels and ear shoots ap- 
pear ; than which nothing can appear more preposterous. 

The foregoing essay on the economy of maize was written before 
the untimely frosts of 1816 appejvred. 

The spring, summer, and fore4part of autumn in that year, were 
much colder, and accompanied with more frequent and untimely 
frosts than had happened since this country was first settled by 
Europeans. This has caused much speculation, but seems to have 
terminated in nothing more than it is probable, from the records 
kept in Europe of similar events, that every part of the globe is 
subjected to temporary and distressing alterations in climate, from 
causes which do not seem to be understood. It also seems proba- 
ble that some such occurrence enabled Julius Csesar to cross the 
Tiber on the ice, although this circumstance is quoted to prove that 
the climate of Italy has been greatly altered. 



220 

Some of the old men in this country confidently assert that great 
changes have taken place in the climate since they were young. 
However, it would appear that such alterations as they speak of 
could not have been eiFected in so short a time by the causes quoted 
by them, even if these causes were calculated to produce the ef- 
fect attributed to them; which, saying the least that can be said of 
them, seems doubtful. 

Still, so prevalent is this theory, that some of the older settlers 
in this place tell us the climate has been altered since they came 
here. Although no alteration in the ffice of the country can justly 
lead to any idea of this kind, except that in some few places, where 
the grounds have been more extensively cleared than has commonly 
happened, the removal of the shelter which the surrounding forest 
afforded the crops, has caused them to be more frequently affected 
by frost. 

I do not question, but time has greatly altered the constitution, 
&c. of most of these old men, who speak of alterations in our cli- 
mate; as I find it has produced similar effects on myself. But I 
have seen nothing of those alterations in the climate of which too 
many of them speak; therefore, cannot credit this ideal opinion. 

The winters have been frequently very different, so have been the 
springs, summers and falls. Still on the whole, they seem to be the 
same as they were, ever since I was capable of making observations 
on them; with the exception of the year 1816. In that year my corn 
was planted the 23d of April. The weather proved favourable until 
the 8th and 9th of May, when it was cut off by frost. It was also, 
cut off twice after this in May, and once more on the 9th of June. 

I will now copy from my diary, the notes taken of the frosts which 
happened after this, and their effects on my corn, until it was de- 
stroyed by them; as I believe these notes and the observations, I 
shall make on them, will be interesting to those who wish to become 
well acquainted with the economy of maize. On the 16th of June, 
it is observed, " the corn is full as high as it was when last cut off 
by the frost." On the 29th of June, " Ice this morning, formed in a 
dish on the top of the shed, but there was a fog, and no apparent in- 
jury done." •' June 30th, cold, and the corn turned sallow." " July 
5th, some white frost, but not enough to do serious injury." "July 
rth, considerable white frost, but no apparent injury done to vege- 
tation." " July 9th, considerable white frost, but no perceptible in- 
jury done." "July 10th, white frost, but not so severe as yesterday." 
"July 18th, frost in the bottoms " "July 27th, warm ; a gpst, with 
hail as large as walnuts." "July 29th, slight white frost." "August 
21st, considerable white frost, but no injury expected from it." 
*' August 22d, considerable white frost and ice in non-conductors."* 

* The nonconductors here alluded to are either wooden troughs or tubs, ot 
crocks standing on a board, or any other substance calculated to prevent the 
lieat arising from the earth from communicating with the water exposed in 
these vessels to the open air. 



221 

• August 28th, corn blades in Philipsburg frozen quite stiff; con- 
siderable ice on them ; ice in non-conductors, one-eighth of an inch 
thick; corn at Philipsburg greatly damaged, perhaps ruined." *« Au- 
gust 29th, more white frost and ice than yesterday, the leaves of 
Mr. Philips's corn nearly all killed, and many of the leaves of my 
corn sadly singed, and partly killed, especially in the lower part of 
the field."* " September 17th, slight white frost." " September 
,18th, slight white frost." " September 26th, foggy in the morning, 
with some white frost." " September 27th, our water tub covered 
with ice as thick as window glass, the earth in the garden a little 
frozen." '• September 28th, much hoar frost, the ground frozen 
about half an inch deep." 

Of consequence, the corn plant was entirely killed, and not a single 
ear in my field got hard. However, it was pulled and fed to the 
working cattle, milch cows and hogs, but seemed to afford but little 
nutriment, and to do but little good. The fodder was set up in 
heaps, as the effect of the frost kept the stalks soft; the cattle eat 
nearly the whole of them, with the husks and frosted blades. They 
appeared to do as well on this food, as they did, after it was con- 
sumed, on first crop hay. I would, therefore, advise the cultivator to 
take good care of his fodder when killed by an untimely frost, 
especially the stalks and husks. 

It is worthy of remark, that as the roots of the corn plant, had. 
become established in the soil, even that debility which must have 
been occasioned by the tops being so frequently cut off, had not pre- 
vented it from regaining, by the 16th of June, the full height which 
it had lost but seven days before, by being cut off by frost. Also, 
that notwithstanding the many frosts encountered by it, and the 
greatly increased severity of that on the 28th and 29th of August, 
the plant and the ears have generally attained their full size, and 
the latter were in common well filled with grain, when the plants 
were destroyed by the severe frost, which happened on the 27th and 
28th of September. 

There can be little doubt, notwithstanding the unprecedented 
hostility of the season, that if in place of the large yellow gourd- 
seed corn, an early variety had been planted by me, that it would 
not only generally have filled well, but also hardened in time to 
escape destruction. Also, that if the farmers iiad planted as 
early as I did, their crops grown on the higher grounds won 1^1 have 
escaped the wide waste of ruin to which they were subjected, for 
■ they commonly plant the smaller and earlier corns. 

They, however, waited until they believed the ground would be 
warmed ; but, as it very often happens, it was then found, on the 
whole, not so well calculated to promote the vegetation of the seed, 
or to establish the roots of the plant in the soil, as it was when, and 
for some time after, my corn was planted. The natural consequence 
was a general failure of the corn crop ; except near to rivers or 

♦ My field was vastly more favourably situated than the corn in Pliilipsburg'. 



222 

wide creeks, or where the field was uncommonly well sheltered 
by the surrounding woodlands ; and even in such situations, the 
corn crops are generally of but little worth. 

Local causes render Philipsburg, and the cleared grounds ad- 
joining it, much more subject to frost than any other part of the 
neighbourhood where the ground has been cleared. 

A wide bottom commences opposite the town, and runs between 
four and five miles beyond it, in a north-westerly direction. This 
bottom was formerly inhabited by beavers. The damming up the 
water killed the trees; since the dams were cut, the grounds have 
grown up in grass, bushes, shrubs and low trees. The timber grow- 
ing on the hills on each side of this bottom, is very lofty. This forms 
a wide and very deep hollow, which conveys the heavy cold air in- 
to the opening on which the town stands. This caused the leaves 
of the corn grown by Mr. Philips, to be almost all killed by the frost 
which happened on the 28th and 29th of August; and also destroyed 
the leaves of his pompions and some few of the vines. 

After this happened, it was debated, whether it would be best to 
cut off the plants for fodder, or to let them stand; the last idea 
prevailed. It was evidently seen after this, that the silk grew, and 
believed, that the ears increased in size. Also thought, that if the 
frosts of the 27th and 28th of September had not killed the plants, 
and the fall had been favourable after this, that half a crop of grain 
would have been obtained, notwithstanding untoward causes had 
procrastinated the planting, until the 8th and 10th of May, and the 
variety of seed used was not so early as some other corns. It had 
been accidentally formed, by mixing the big and the little yellow, 
with a slight portion of the gourdseed corn. 

New leaves put out from the pompion vines, and attained nearly, 
if not quite, their full size, after the first leaves had been destroyed 
by the frost of the 28th and 29th of August. It was thought that 
several of the pompions which were growing at that time on the 
vines had, after this, increased in size ; however, those plants were 
also killed by the frost of the 27th and 28th September. 

From these circumstances, and many others, which it would be 
tedious to relate, I believe the corn plant is not effectually killed, 
unless it be debilitated by age, or is near the point of perfecting its 
fruit, until the ground is frozen, and the roots, as well as the top, 
are more or less affected by frost. Therefore, I would. advise the 
cultivator, not to cut off the corn plant, unless this happens, or he 
considers the ears ripe enough for the grain to become dry and 
hard, after the plants are set up into heaps. 

Notwithstanding the inclement seasons of 1816, farmers, at least 
here, do not seem to have had much cause to complain. The winter 
wheat was better than usual, so were oats ; spring wheat, at least 
equal to any grown here, before or since ; there was but one small 
patch of barley grown in the settlement, and this certainly bore no 
marks of being injured by the seasons. Flax was better than com- 
mon. Buckv/heat was considerably injured in some situations, but 



223 

on the whole yielded at least half a crop. Potatoes, especially late 
planted, were considerably curtailed in size, except in situations 
where they were well sheltered by the woodlands ; there would, 
however, have been no serious lack of them, were it not that far- 
mers, notwithstanding they have been too often seriously admo- 
nished by great loss, still continue covering the heaps in which 
they are commonly kept through the winter, entirely too shallow to 
exclude frost. 

This error is not confined to climates where the winters are un- 
commonly cold ; as the same evil has too frequently happened in 
every climate where I have resided. On grounds which had not 
been injudiciously too much exhausted to grow profitable crops of 
the grasses for hay, there was no cause for complaint. On thin 
soils it was otherwise, and so it ever will be, unless the seasons 
greatly favour the inconsiderate cultivator of them. Still too many 
farmers do not appear to see, that when the soil is not exhausted, 
and the cultivation is good, the farmer, be his crops what they may, 
seems generally to control the seasons, and often makes them sub- 
servient to him. He has not only very generally a plenty to sell, 
but when the bad farmer has but little, or perhaps must either buy 
or starve, he obtains a high price, because the article is scarce ; 
but this is not all, he becomes wealthy, while the inconsiderate far- 
mer has to struggle with poverty as long as he may happen to live ; 
and entails misery on his posterity, by leaving them an impove- 
rished, and most likely a mortgaged soil ; also, with what is still 
much worse than either, habits opposed to the improvement of the 
grounds. 

After the 9th of October, the weather in the fall of 1816 was as 
moderate, or perhaps more so than usual ; December was uncom- 
monly mild, so much so, that my cattle and horses, except when 
working, were kept in pasture until the 9th of that month. As the 
grass of the second crop had been reserved, until it attained nearly 
its full growth, they might have been generally kept in pasture un- 
til some time after Christmas, for the snows were very light, and 
soon melted away. However, as a light fall of snow had induced 
me to put them to dry fodder on the 9th of December, and the pas- 
ture lay near two miles distant from where they were housed, and 
the weather at this season of the year is very uncertain, it was 
thought best not to turn them into pasture again. The weather 
continued to be very moderate until the 9th of January, when it 
became very cold, and it continued generally so, throughout the re- 
maining part of tlie winter of 1817. 

We are, however, told of winters still more severe in Europe. " In 
the great frost in 1683, oaks, and ashes, and walnut trees were cleft 
in two, and frequently with a terrible noise, and not only their bo- 
dies, but their branches and roots also. In 1708, the frost was al- 
most through all Europe, except Scotland and Ireland. All the 
orange trees and olives in Italy, Provence, and many other coun- 
tries perished, and all the walnut trees in France, with an infinity 



224 

of other trees. In England, most of the bay trees, hollies, rosemary, 
and even furze, perished. The sap also of wall trees stagnated in 
the branches, and produced disorders resembling chilblains ; and 
the very buds of the finer trees were quite killed, and turned into a 
kind of mealy substance. 

In 1728, toward the end of November, the wind blew exceedingly 
cold, followed by so heavy a snow, as in one night broke off large 
arms of many evergreen trees. At this time, also, there was a great 
number of large trees disbarked. Two West India plane trees, in 
particular, in the Physic-garden at Chelsea, which were near forty 
feet high, and a fathom in circumference, were disbarked almost 
from the bottom to the top, on the west side of the trees ; and it was 
observable, that whatever trees were disbarked, it was on the west 
or south-west side. 

On the 14th December, 1759, there was at Petersburg the most 
excessively cold weather that ever was known, even to 205 degrees 
of De Lisle's thermometer.* 

When a country is generally covered with timber, much of the 
heat is accumulated during the warm spells which take place in the 
winter, and confined in the open space which exists between the 
bodies and branches of the larger as well as of the smaller trees 
and shrubs which grow on the grounds. This is not, however, so 
perceptibly felt by us on our first entering the forest, where the 
timber, shrubs, &c. which happen to prevail, are of the deciduous 
kinds. 

Here the timber and shrubs are generally evergreen. The clear- 
ings are small in size, and the number of them inconsiderable. 
When I have left the clearing in which the town stands, soon after 
a change from heat to cold had taken place in the winter, and en- 
tered the adjacent forest, through which I often daily passed on my 
way to my farm, I have frequently felt just the same as I have often 
done after leaving the cold air and entering into a cellar. After a 
warm spell has greatly moderated the air in the cleared grounds in 
the winter, the contrary eftect has been as perceptibly felt on enter- 
ing the forest. 

Now, we all know that cold and hot air mix and form an equili- 
brium as soon as this can be conveniently done. Of course, when- 
ever the air is either colder or warmer in the forest, it will be con- 
tinually rushing into the different air existing in the clearing, until 
an equilibrium is obtained. It would, therefore, seem, that where 
forests abound, the air can never be either so hot or so cold in the 
clearings, as it will be when those extensive forests are removed. 
Consequently, it would seem, that in place of our winters becoming 
more mild when the forests are cleared, they will be more severe, 
especially in our maritime country, on the east side of the Allegheny, 
as there the cold north-west and north-east winds generally prevail 
through the winter and early parts of the spring ; and, it would ap- 

♦ See Wesley's Phil. vol. i. p. 425. 



225 

pear, will become more severe in consequence of tiie removal of the 
forests, which now oppose a considerable proportion of their force. 
To illustrate this, I beg the reader to refer to where I have explain- 
ed how a trivial local cause greatly increases the severity of the 
frosts in Philipsburg, and causes them to act vastly more powerfully 
than they do in any of the other clearings which have been made in 
this neighbourhood. 

It is, however, readily acknowledged, that the question respect- 
ing the changes which may be produced by a general clearing of 
the country is a difficult one. It can only be determined by time, 
and by consulting the most authentic records that may have been 
kept, of the annual state of the weather since the country was first 
settled by Europeans, and extending (when it may be done) the 
same mode of inquiry for ages yet to come. 

Therefore, my principal aim in discussing this subject prematurely, 
is to rescue it from the hands of the very many old men and old 
women, who confidently assert that great alterations have taken 
place in the climate within the very contracted span of their limit- 
ed observation, although, if the usual allowance be made for unto- 
ward seasons, they might have seen that our seed time and harvests 
have not been altered. 

Before implicit confidence, however, be placed in those ideal 
changes, it should be recollected that old men and old women com- 
monly claim all the superior merit which is so very justly due to a 
long life spent in the judicious observation of men and things, whe- 
ther their time has or has not been thus usefully employed. 

Hence it is, that we commonly hear old people passing extrava- 
gant encomiums on the virtue, modesty, and good behaviour of the 
youth among which they were brought up, and as extravagantly 
railing against the fashions and propensities of the present age. 
Now, if the testimony of these very sagacious old people were to be 
admitted, from the time the practice of finding fault with the pre- 
sent generation, and praising the past first commenced, it really 
would seem that the folly and wickedness of man must have in- 
creased so fast that nothing but vice and immorality could have 
long since existed in the world. We, however, find, at least in this 
country, that in consequence of education being more generally 
diffused among all the different ranks of our citizens, and with it 
the precepts of the Gospel, vice hides its deformed head, sculks in 
corners, and shuns the light more than it formerly did. 

My subject, however, puts me in mind of my uncle. He seemed 
firmly to believe that nothing was as good as when he was young. 
He even went so far as to declare the peaches were nothing like so 
good as they were when he was a boy. It, however, so happened, 
that my uncle was not so much older than myself, but that I very 
well knew if the same kind of peaches which pleased him so well 
when he was a boy, were growing in his orchard among the more 
highly improved trees, from which he could gather none that pleased 
him, his hogs would not have eaten one of them until after the whole 

P f 



226 

of the fruit from the more highly improved trees had beeu con- 
sumed. 

It would, however, appear, that my uncle, in the heyday of youth, 
found enjoyment in every thing from which pleasure could be glean- 
ed. But as he grew older, he became (as too commonly happens) 
much harder to please, until at length he met with nothing that 
gave him pleasure, and that he vented his spleen by complaining 
of the great alterations which had taken place since he was young. 

In fact, it would appear that these supposed alterations in climate 
have been too often referred to by agriculturists as a convenient 
covering, to hide from the eyes of their too credulous readers the 
real cause which had induced them to abandon practices in which 
they had obstinately persisted long after it clearly appeared that 
they were wrong. 

It would, therefore, seem, that notwithstanding it would cost more 
time and paper than the subject was worth to expose many of those 
palp?ble attempts to saddle the climate v/ith the errors and mis- 
takes of individuals, still to place one of those attempts on a pro- 
per footing, may be very useful ; and it will naturally lead the far- 
mer to investigate cause and effect more closely than it would seem 
has yet been done, before he admits that an alteration in the climate 
is the real cause of the changes in practice which have been attri- 
buted to it. 

This is the more important, for if the change rests merely on an 
alteration in the seasons, it would appear, that every alteration in 
practice, made in consequence of an alteration in the climate, should 
be regulated by the previous knowledge of this alteration, and how 
long it would continue. Consequently, that no fixed general princi- 
ples could be established, unless those very ingenious men, who 
make our large Dutch almanacs, could be prevailed upon to supply 
this deficiency, by a very long addition to this highly important 
calendar.* But to proceed. Judge Peters tells us, under date of 
the 10th of August, 1811, that "I was formerly of opinion, and 
succeeded under it, that thin sowing was, in clean and fertile ground, 
the best. But I am now convinced that, by some sliift of circuin- 

• This brings to mj' recollection an occurrence that happened several years 
ago. There lived about three miles from my former residence a German farmer 
noted for doing every thing well, especially for saving his hay in untoward 
seasons. This induced me to call and ask him by what kind of observations 
he made himself so well acquainted with the weather. He told me that he 
generally bought three or four different Dutch almanacs ; that when he wish- 
ed to become well acquainted with the weather, he spread them out before 
him, and with much attention considered the report of each. These he com- 
monly found very different ; but by due attention to what was stated in them, 
and by also comparing the prospects of the weather with them, he seldom fail- 
ed to get in his hay without wet. It required but little penetration to see that 
my neighbour was indebted to his own very .superior judgment, and not as he 
appeared firmly to believe to his three or four Dutch almanacs. As I however 
thought that any hints of this sort might aggravate but could not convince him 
of his error, I took my leave without seeming to doubt the value of his alma- 
nacs. 



227 

stances and change of seasons, our fields, in whatever state of cither 
fertility or poverty, require more seed than we have heretofore been 
accustomed to sow. I shall increase my quantity hereafter, never 
having sown more than a bushel per acre. 1 will also make some 
particular comparative experiments, as to quantities, on different 
acres. Cold and unfavourable springs have, for several years past, 
retarded the early shooting of the plants, and in such case they do 
not stool as formerly."* 

On the 15th of July, 1812, this gentleman tells us, that "in con- 
sequence of the opinion as to a quantity of seed I mentioned in a 
foregoing letter, I have tried various quantities on different acres. 
Jill are good ; but I think the grain from one bushel and a half of 
seed, has the largest heads, and will yield the greatest number of 
bushels." " I was, in my youth, an advocate for three pecks per 
acre. I now think five, (or six at the utmost,) pecks sufficient."! 

Here I proceed from Mr. Peters's own testimony to prove that 
when he came to the determination, (to wit, in 1811.) to try the ex- 
periment of sowing more seed, there had previously existed no al- 
teration in the seasons " for many years past," more than had 
usually happened. 

He tells us, under the date of the 15th of July, 1812, that "the 
Smyrna wheat is now ripe, and fit for the sickle. It is a promising 
crop, and has withstood the storms and unfavourable season far be- 
yond any other grain. The harvest is later, at least ten days, than 
it has been for many years past."| Here is ample testimony " the 
harvest of 1812 was ten days later than it had been for many 
years," and yet we find the Smyrna wheat was " ripe and fit for the 
sickle" on the 15th of July. Now, if we deduct ten days from 
those fifteen it leaves five, and if from the five we deduct as many 
more days as we suppose ought to be done, in consequence of this 
gentleman's saying in the preceding year, that the Smyrna wheat 
" ripens somewhat late, and I almost dread the mildew, blight, or 
rust,"§ we shall find that the harvests, previously to 1812, were as 
early, " for many years past," as they had generally been since the 
memory of man, in the vicinity of Philadelphia. Why then com- 
plain of what could not, agreeably to his own statements, have 
existed " for many years" previously to 1812 .'* The spring of that 
year certainly abounded in cold. The winds generally hung to the 
northward and north-east. As it happened to be the year on which 
1 removed to this place, I very well remember that I left the farm 
on which I had been previously living, about the 23d of May, that 
the wheat, grasses, &c. were very backward ', that I staid a day or 
two in Philadelphia ; that during my stay there it snowed nearly 
all one day, and that enough fell to have covered the ground several 
inches deep, if it had not melted away nearly as fast as it fell, and 
that it continued cold throughout the whole of the month. It puts 

• See vol. iii. Mem, Phil. Agr. See. p. 23, 24. f Idem, page 27, 28. 

* Idem, page 26. § Idem, vol. Ui> 



228 

me in mind of what happened about fortj-five years ago. I was 
then living with my father-in-law, on his farm on the eastern shore 
of Maryland. It was so very uncommonly cold that we had to kin- 
dle fires, and sat by them after the wheat was in head. 

In fact, it has ever been the case since my recollection, that when 
the winds generally hung to the northward and north-east until late 
in the spring, in our maritime country, the springs were always 
cold, and vegetation greatly retarded. On the west side of the 
Allegheny, warm winds commonly prevail in the spring, and in some 
of the valleys there, vegetation is in the same line of latitude, 
about three degrees forwarder than in the valleys on the eastern 
side of the mountain. 

Volney, after labouring hard to substantiate this imaginary 
change in our climate, says, " Dr. Rush, indeed, seems to hesitate 
in his belief, after noticing the severity of several late winters, and. 
thinks some errors may have arisen for want of thermometers." 
Now, this candid acknowledgement of Dr. R. who had previously 
written to substantiate the supposed change in our climate, does 
honour to his head and heart, and ought to have its full weight with 
those who wish to investigate the subject. 

Mr. Volney, after this, observes, " I cannot, however, believe with 
Mr. Williams, that the colds have been much diminished in degree 
in the course of the last century. The cold of 16S3 was, according 
to him, greater than that of 1782; was attended with similar cir- 
cumstances, and was the greatest ever known ; but this estimate is 
merely conjectural, and his reasonings cannot supply the want of 
thermometrical observations, at the former of these periods. Ther- 
mometers, indeed, were unknown in America until about the year 
1740. This conjecture is the less plausible, if we admit, what I 
think I have proved, that the north-west wind is the great source 
of cold in North America, since the wind has undergone no altera- 
tion in its properties. The experiments of Dr. Ramsay afford ana- 
logies that will justify us in dissenting from this theory. This 
writer, on comparing the observations of Dr. Chalmers, made be- 
tween 1750 and 1760, with his own, made from 1790 to 1794, found 
a difference of only half a degree in the heat ; a difference so small 
that it may reasonably be ascribed to a difference in the instru- 
ments ; but if the heat has not increased, we are obliged to infer 
that the cold has not diminished. What appears to be demonstrated 
on this head, is that winter is shorter, the summer longer, and the 
autumn later, than they formerly were, but that the cold, as the last 
ten years sufficiently evince, is as violent as ever. 

"Mr. Mackenzie, who admits these changes, supposes the cause 
to be inherent in the globe itself, because he has witnessed them in 
places where the ground remains in its primitive state. But if 
these places, which he does not mention, be in Canada, they tend 
only to confirm my suspicion, since the removal of the forests in 
certain mountains and slopes of Genesee and Kentucky, would un- 



229 

avoidably introduce streams of mild air into Upper and Lower 
Canada from the south-west."* 

Now it would appear that Mr. Volney, in order to substantiate 
his theory, has first to suppose that the traveller, Mr. Mackenzie, 
was in Canada, when he made these observations ; secondly, that 
the removal of the forests in certain mountains and slopes of Gene- 
see and Kentucky, would unavoidably introduce considerable 
streams of mild air into Upper and Lower Canada from the south- 
west. It would, however, be a difficult job to determine where Mr. 
Mackenzie made these observations ; but still vastly more difficult 
to suppose that the settlers, when Mr. Volney wrote, had abandoned 
the fertile plains of these two states, to clear and cultivate the 
rough and unfertile grounds on the mountains. 

Enough, I trust, has been said to convince the plain practical far- 
mer, that no alteration has happened in our climate which should 
induce him to alter any practice that time and observation has de- 
termined to be good. 

There is, however, another cause, which only exists in the ima- 
gination of some cultivators, and to which some of them also attri- 
bute the changes made in their practice and opinions : to wit ; the 
absurd idea that locality alone is sufficient to destroy the good pro- 
perties of the best of seeds, and most highly improved breeds of 
animals. I could readily mention very pointed, as well as laugha- 
ble cases, which would clearly determine that locality had no- 
thing to do with the changes which some have attributed to it. 
But if I were to do this, it might look as if I took a delight in goad- 
ing the feelings, and exposing the follies, of others. 

The alteration, however, in the quantity of wheat to be sown to 
the acre, is a very important one, as will more clearly appear when 
I shall fully explain that subject: therefore, it ought to be noticed 
by me in a way that seemed the most likely to impress the subject 
on the minds of my readers. It is believed, however, that the Pre- 
sident may yet discover that two bushels, sown as early as the 
depredations committed by the Hessian fly will admit it to be safely 
done, will be far better than one and a half. For though it is rea- 
dily admitted that the heads of thinner sown wheat will be always 
larger than that which is thicker sown, be the quantity sown what 
it may, still, it should be recollected, that it is not the size of the 
heads which determines whether the quantity best calculated to 
yield the greatest product to the acre, has been sown. This can 
only be determined accurately by measuring the produce. It, there- 
fore, seems to follow of course, that Mr. Peters will be far bettei 
prepared to determine the proper quantity of wheat that should be 
sown to the acre, after he has employed more years than one, in a 
practice which he acknowledges is new to him. 

* See Volney's View, pages 216, 220, 22L 



CHAPTER XVIIL 



Remarks on the economy of the potato. Also on growing it on thin set wood- 
lands. Directions how to grow this plant, so as to obtain a succession of new 
potatoes throughout the winter- It will live and perfect its fruit on but little 
nutriment. Some varieties are vastly more productive than others. To ob- 
tain the best, the seed should be sown and cultivated. Observations on the 
mode of cutting the sets and cultivating the plant. Also on scooping out the 
eyes, planting, and cultivating them. The largest potatoes should be selected 
for seed. By planting small ones the best variety is degenerated- The crop 
is injured by misplacing the vines and leaves in the cultivation of it. 

I WILL now describe the best mode of cultivating the potato ; but 
before this be done, it may be useful to make some remarks on the 
economy of the plant. I cannot do this better than by transcribing 
what I published on that subject in Mr. Poulson's paper of the 16th 
of February, 1816, to wit: 

Mr. Poulson. Observing in the third volume of the Memoirs of 
the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, that the properties of the 
potato plant have been injuriously represented by Judge Peters, I 
have thought it useful, consequently proper, to vindicate the charac- 
ter and economy of that invaluable plant. 

He says, " that it is an exhauster we have long known." Now, 
so far as my information extends, it is considered by the farmers in 
this country to be an ameliorating crop. To prove that it is such, I 
will first transcribe an extract from a communication made by me 
on the 4th of January, 1814, to the society over which he presides, 
on the cultivation of this plant. It so happened that this was not 
published in the Memoirs. 

" The foliage of this plant is well calculated to gather much nutri- 
ment from the atmosphere. It also evinces a peculiar disposition to 
draw a large proportion of its support from moist confined air. It 
will grow and produce fruit when only covered with chaff or straw,* 
although little traces of the decomposition of either appear. This 
occurs in situations where light and air have been almost excluded." 

"On the 5th of June, 1811, I handed youf some potatoes, grown 
in the arch supporting the bridge at the north side of my barn. They 
were equal in size to any I saw that day in the Jersey market of 
the same year's growth, and were considered good by my family. 
The arch had not been well constructed, and was rather damp for 
storing that root. It was filled in the fall, but having abundance 

* It will do this when laid on the hard ground in jryard, if sufficiently co- 
vered with stravi^. 
f Dr. James Mease. 



231 

elsewhei'e, it was not opened until late ; those causes combined pro* 
duced this effect. If Mr. Young had made his experiments on grass 
grounds, or introduced other substances calculated to gather and 
confine moisture and air, it is probable he would have found the 
potato far less exhausting. 

" Still they are a very luxuriant crop, and one or more grain 
crops generally follow before the grounds are laid down in grass. 
Of consequence, they should pot be grown without manure, except 
on grounds where the timber has been recently removed or girdled, 
on which they are verj^ profitable, and the best preparation for fol- 
lowing crops. 

" From attentively observing this plant, I believe it may be pro- 
fitably grown on thin set woodlands; and I grubbed out the useless 
plants of a small portion of my woods to make the experiment, but 
my removal here put a stop to this and other projected improve- 
ments. The shovel plough used here among roots and girdled tim- 
ber, will readily prepare the soil, and the fall of the leaves will an- 
swer for manure, if cropping be not carried too far. The cultivation 
will improve the young timber plants, and trimming the trees gra- 
dually, will economise fuel, and let in more sun and air. 

" It appears reasonable to suppose, that a regular and plentiful 
supply of new potatoes may be readily obtained through the winter 
and spring by erecting frames one above another in a tight room or 
house, covering the floors of those framessufficiently deep with half 
rotted chaff, in which plant the potato sets, after wetting and rolling 
them in gypsum, or mixing some leached ashes with the chaff A 
few panes of glass to admit light is necessary, and the sashes should 
be opened in fine weather; a stove to kindle fire when severe Frost 
is expected, should be introduced. Mr. Peale's smoke eater is cheap, 
and requires but little fuel, and is far better than iron for this pur- 
pose. The chaff should be occasionally watered, and the house dis- 
tant from others, or fire and chaff' under the same roof may become 
troublesome neighbours."* 

A plant possessing these properties cannot be more exhausting 
than any other equally valuable, provided suitable materials are 
applied to gather a sufficiency of that food which it is evident the 
plant will live and thrive on, independently of any nutriment from 
the soil. 

As Mr. Young's experiments to ascertain the properties of the 
potato were not formed on principles calculated to gather this kind 
of nutriment, they prove nothing but that he had not investigated 
the economy of the plant,t and that the poor in Britain have suffer- 

* Boxes without bottoms, placed on the earthen floor of a light airy cellar, 
and filled with rich mould, would be a cheaper, and perhaps a better arrange^ 
ment. The heat and moisture arising from the earth would invigorate the 
plants. There would be less danger from frost if the cellar was good, and the 
expense of the stove, as well as the risk from fire, would be avoided. 

\ That the economy of this plant has not been thoroughly understood, it, 
evident fi'om an essay to obtain new potatoes during the whole year having 
lately obtained a golden medal. 



232 

eii greatly in consequence of this mistake. The owners of land 
there, beinjo; alarmed, have restricted the growth of this root, which 
nature seems to have calculated exactly to supply the wants of op- 
pressed humanity. 

It v/ill not only produce valuable fruit on little comparative nutri- 
ment when properly managed, but the cultivation of it is so simple, 
that an indigent Irishman obtains considerable increase by laying 
the sets on a hard sward (without any manure,) and covering them 
with the earth dug from the ditches between the beds. 

Leaves, twigs, cornstalks, straw, stubbly, weeds, or any other 
offal vegetable matter, calculated to gather and confine air and 
moisture, will produce profitable crops of this root. But if plenty 
of this kind of food be not provided, the plant is compelled to prey 
upon the soil, just like an ox tied up in a stall to be fattened with 
grain. He becomes a powerful and expensive exhauster of corn, 
although he will fatten freely, and with but little comparative ex- 
pense, on grass alone. 

This subject might be illustrated in many ways; but as it happens 
that an indigent Irishman depends principally on potatoes for his 
support, I will briefly remark, that when one of these hardy and 
laborious sons of Erin emigrates to this country, where labour is 
higii and provision cheap, he soon becomes a powerful exhauster of 
flesh and other expensive food. Yet we do not observe that his 
health or his strength is greater than when he lived principally on 
potatoes and buttermilk. 

The President also says, that the potato " should be cultivated as 
a crop by itself, and not in connexion with a grain course." I have 
never grown better wheat than has followed potatoes, but the quan- 
tity of seed was increased as the season advanced. If others have 
suffered by this practice, it is more than I am aware of; but certain 
1 am, that under the present mode of cultivation, no preparatory 
crop can be superior to potatoes, for growing spring wheat, barley, 
or oats; and these, followed by clover, furnish a luxuriant lay for 
wheat. Why then, in the name of common sense, should this root 
" be cultivated as a crop by itself, and not in connexion with a grain 
course ?" Is the ground, like a Virginia tobacco patch, to be always 
used for the same purpose ? Those who endeavour to overturn esta- 
blished practices should at least propose others. 

Mr. Peters likewise observes, that " if dung, proper for a wheat 
crop only, is laid on for potatoes and wheat, little fertility will be 
left after the crops are gathered." This is granted ; but he should 
liave recollected that Mr. Young, whom he quotes to prove the ex- 
hausting properties of the potato, says " that one acre of potatoes, at 
a moderate calculation, is equal to two of wheat." 

As this is true, it proves the farmer will save, by growing pota- 
toes, the value of one crop of wheat, with the manure and labour 
necessary to grow it; also, one year's rent 'of the land, even if it 
should require double the quantity of dung to be applied to the po- 



2SS 

tioes when wheat is gjrown after them, for the cultivator gets the 
value of three crops of wheat in two years." 

<' But I am obliged again to differ from the respectable Presideat. 
1 never have observed the violent, outrageous, ungovernable, mor- 
bid, exhausting, mischievous, unrestrained, infuriated, and desultory 
effects"* of fresh manure of which he complains, nor do I ever, like 
him, rot my manure, to avoid the evils he enumerates, as floAvirig 
from fresh dung, such as the ' superabounding azote and poisonous 
qualities of muck'f &c. For, if fresh dung from the same number 
of cattle, that would furnish a sufficiency of manure, to be decom- 
posed for the wheat crop alone, be applied to the potatoes, it will be 
found that after its ♦ infuriated rage, poison,' &.c. have been spent 
in perfecting that crop, a sufficiency of nutriment will be left for the 
wheat and the grass, which are to follow it." " For the manure is 
not exhaled by the sun, scattered in the winds, or eaten by innu- 
merable insects, which take wing and fly away with the carcasses, 
reared at the farmer's expense, unless they be killed by mixing 
septic substances with the manure, which is still more destructive 
than they." 

Having observed the evils arising from covering potato sets with 
the sod in the usual way; also, that when the plough, roller, and 
harrow have pulverised the soil, for the growth of this plant, the 
hauling and spreading of the manure poaches the ground sadly, 
especially, if dripping weather occur ; likewise, that if the horse 
hauling the manure go in one furrow, and the wheels of the cart in 
the furrows on each side of him, the intervals are little injured, but 
the bottoms of the furrows are hardened like a road ; these consi- 
derations induced me in 1811, to pursue a different course. 

Slaked lime was spread over a grass lay, and long fresh dung 
over the lime ; the grounds were ploughed four times in the same 
direction ; this being the best mode of ploughing to pulverise a sod j 
they were harrowed as often, and rolled twice or thrice. The long 
fresh manure made the two first ploughings troublesome ; still, it 
and the grass roots were so completely incorporated with the soil, 
that it seemed light and mellow like an ash heap. 

The head and foot of the patch were staked, at the distance of 
three feet, to regulate the width between the furrows formed for 
planting. A wheel barrow with small blocks of wood fastened on 
the wheel, made indentures in the bottom of the furrows for planting. 
Whole potatoes, of a marketable size, were planted at the distance 
of seventeen inches asunder. The plants were lightly earthed up 
twice, before the fruit roots were in danger of being cut off, and 
hand hoers followed to uncover and dress up the plants; after this, 
the weeds which outtopped the potato vines were cut off by the 
ground with a knife, as pulling them up uncovers the bulbs, and 
injures the crop. 

* Mem. Phil. A^. Soc. vol. iii. page 222. \ Ibid, 331. 

G s 



234 

The potatoes in each cluster were inconsiderable, when com- 
pared with the number of plants ; this induced ine to remove the 
ground betweeoi several of the clusters ; in doing this, not one po- 
tato was seen in about half the space between them ; from this it 
appeared, that eight or nine plants arising from the same number 
of prolific eyes in a whole potato, were by far too many to stand in 
one cluster. This was- confirmed, for by calculating the number of 
prolific eyes in the seed, it appeared, that the crop had produced 
only about one potato for each eye planted. 

If each potato had been cut into four pieces, and the sets planted 
at half the distance, the product would have been much greater, 
and half the seed saved ; still under this marked mismanagement, 
and an injurious drought during the time of bulbing, the crop mea- 
sured at the rate of three hundred and one bushels to the acre. 

It has been said, that more than double this quantity has been 
grown on an acre of ground, and it seems probable. Of this, how- 
ever, I can say nothing certain, either from practice or observation, 
as this is the largest crop that has been grown by me, or that I have 
known to be grown by any other person. However, I believe it 
would have produced at least half as much more, if the arrange- 
ment and cultivation of the plants had been equal to the prepara- 
tion of the soil. 

It would be difficult to devise a better preparation to grow an 
extensive crop of potatoes. But independently of the erroneous 
arrangement of the plants, it cannot be profitable. The cultivation 
was too laborious and expensive ; the roots of the grasses, and farm 
yard manures, were not only exposed to useless waste from the sun, 
rain, &c. but also to the destructive effects of the lime intimately 
blended with them. The ridging up of the plants, though done with 
due precaution, was certainly very injurious; more especially, as 
the weather happened to be dry, while they were perfecting their 
fruit. 

Yet, if the arrangement bf the plants had been favourable, and the 
crop uncommonly large, as I believe it would, and also published, 
Avithout comment, no question but many would have been led into 
error by it. 

The reader will recollect, that the indigent Irishman obtains pro- 
fitable crops of potatoes, without manure, by laying the sets on a 
hard sod, and covering them at a proper depth ,with the earth dig- 
ged from the ditches between the beds. 

The size and number of potatoes, obtained in this way, clearly 
deterraine, that the powerfully expanding force of the fermentation 
of the grass roots, contained in the hard sod, is sufficient to open 
and divide the covering above, which is only to a very small ex- 
tent composed of the same material, so that the fruit, roots, and 
bulbs formed on them are not oppressed ; from which, and various 
other proofs and circumstances, arising from observation, as well 
as actual practice, it is evident, that luxuriant crops of potatoes, 
maybe obtained from grass lays, with but little comparative labour 



235 

and expense, by one plough following the other in the same furrow. 
After the farm yard manure has been spread over the lay, pare 
off the sod not more than three inches deep, turning it with the ma- 
nure, to the bottom of the next furrow, which should be previously 
formed. On this inverted sod, plant the potato sets. The second 
plough should cover the sets about four inches deep, with the soil 
under the furrow, from which the first plough had pared off the sod. 
The whole depth of ploughing iwill, in this case, be seven inches. 
After ploughing as many furrows in the same way, as may be neces- 
sary to form the width of the intervals between the rows, another 
row of sets should be formed in the same way as the first, proceeding 
in this manner, until the field is planted. After which, if the soil be 
free and open, harrow the surface of it, with the tined harrow, until 
it be well pulverised, as deep as may certainly be done without dis- 
turbing the potato sets. If it be too adhesive to be well pulverised 
by this tool alone, it should be done by the hoe harrow, with the 
tined harrow following it. 

If the soil be too retentive of moisture for this plant, or the small 
grain following it, the manner of ploughing, for putting in the po- 
tato sets, should be calculated to form the grounds into ridges of a 
proper width From three feet to two feet nine inches, is certainly 
wide enough for the intervals between the rows. The latter dis- 
tance would be preferred by me, except where stumps or other ob- 
stacles obtain. 

Very large potatoes are not better for table use than those of a 
moderate size, and not so good when the increased size causes them 
to grow hollow in the heart. Large potatoes have large eyes, and 
these produce large vigorous stems and roots; consequently, the 
largest should be invariably selected for seed. Such as farmers 
commonly call seed potatoes should never be planted, but in cases 
of absolute necessity, and then only from the growth of large seed. 
They not only produce small debilitated stems and roots, but if 
selected for planting year after year, will soon degenerate the best 
variety. Still, farmers who really endeavour to improve their breed 
of horses and cattle, by employing the best studs and bulls, without 
considering the expense, (unless it be too extravagant,) yearly plant 
small potatoes, and some even go so far as to declare they are best. 
However, practice, reason, observation and the great affinity that 
there is between plants and animals, clearly determines they are 
wrong. If the largest and best formed potatoes, of any variety, be 
annually selected for seed, they may improve, but cannot degene- 
rate ; provided sufficient nutriment and good cultivation be also em- 
ployed. Unless it should hereafter appear, that the duration of this 
plant is (as some say trees are,) limited when propagated by cut- 
tings. If they should degenerate from this cause, it certainly does 
not happen for a long time. 

The eyes of each variety, commonly grow very uniformly at, or 
about the same part or place, in every potato. Therefore, when 
the farmer has determined the number of eyes he wishes to have in 



236 

each set or cutting, he should examine the structure ot the potato at- 
tentively, and iix on a uniform method of cutting it into sets. He 
should sufter none of the cutters to deviate from it, unless tliey can 
point out a better. Much time is saved by this practice, and vvheu 
the cutters are suffered to adopt any irregular plan, which inatten- 
tion may suggest, the sets are commonly mangled and misshapen. 
Some varieties have many more eyes than others; consequently, if 
the roots be large enough, those having the most eyes w^ill aftbrd the 
most sets. 

rf. When the intervals »re from three feet to two feet nine inches, 
the sets may be cut with two eyes in each of them, if the structure 
of the potato will admit this to be done. However, it commonly 
happens that in aiming to do this, some sets will have but one, and 
others three eyes, unless much of the seed be wasted, or the sets 
very awkwardly and tediously cut. But as the cuttings are mixed 
together, it is by no means likely, that many of those which have 
either one, or three eyes, will immediately follow sets of the same 
description : especially as by far the greater part may, with proper 
attention, be cut with two eyes in them. 

The eyes in the potato which has been planted some time by me, 
are not conveniently situated for regular and expeditious cutting. 
Still, with three straight forward cuts, (requiring but little atten- 
tion,) six such sets as have been just described are formed, and al- 
though some of them are larger than others, none are too small. But 
I select the largest potatoes for seed, before they are removed from 
the field. 

In intervals of the width just mentioned, the sets should be 
planted nine inches apart, from centre to centre, in the rows. If 
small whole potatoes be planted, the crop should be very early thin- 
ned, by pulling up by the roots all but two of the plants growing 
from each potato. If this be not done, the numerous and debilita- 
ted plants, growing from each one of them, will greatly injure the 
crop. 

Some potatoes have very many eyes, others, though large enough 
to be cut, are too small to form sets with only two eyes. In either 
case, the supernumerary plants should be pulled up by the roots. 

When the intervals are eighteen inches, sets having two eyes, 
may be planted twelve inches apart, from centre to centre, in the 
rows. As this arrangement is the same as that so successfully 
practised by Mr. Watson, on thin pasture grounds, without manure, 
it is thought that the introduction of double the number of plants 
grown by him, will not be too many on a grass lay, well manured, 
especially as the Rev. E. Cartvvright, (a distinguished cultivator,) 
publishes in the fifth volume of communications to the British Board 
of Agricniture, that potatoes grown in double rows, nine inches asun- 
der, with intervals of eighteen inches, the sets cut with one eye in 
each, and planted nine inches apart in the i-ows, produce from six- 
teen to twenty tons to the acre ; which may be estimated at about 
rom six to seven hundred bushels, to the acre. This is a very large 



237 

product, but it should be recollected that there is a very great dif- 
ference in the increase of the different varieties of this root. At least 
quite as much, (and as I believe more,) as the loss of half the crop, 
from not planting the most productive. This seems to be the prin- 
cipal reason why the potato produces, generally, much greater crops 
in England, than in this country. Much more attention has been 
given there to raise productive varieties from seed.* I have sought 
for a productive variety of potatoes, but not from seed: conse- 
quently, I have not obtained it. Still, I have clearly seen a differ- 
ence of at least one half the product, in the different varieties no- 
ticed by me. Also, that some varieties will attain a profitable size, 
on soils so thin as not to be capable of producing other varieties, 
large enough for table use, although the latter, when as well manured 
as is commonly done by the thrifty farmer, obtain a large size. 
These are interesting distinctions in the economy of the potato, and 
require much more attention than has been given to them. With 
proper attention, it may perhaps be hereafter seen, that there are 
varieties of many other plants, which will thrive and produce good 
crops, on much less nutriment than other plants of the same species. 
Practice has determined, that some breeds of domesticated animals 
thrive and fatten more freely than others, and on less food. Also, 
that some breeds of horses and oxen will labour, and keep in good 
condition, on much less food than others. It is evident, that the ana- 
logy between plants and animals, is strikingly great. Also, that we 
derive too little agricultural information from this interesting fact. 

But to return to Mr. Cartwright's experiment. The bad effects 
of double hedgerow planting, was much less injurious in conse- 
quence of the introduction of single plants by him. Still, when 
sets are cut with but one eye in each, a part of them must be too 
small to support the infant plant until nature has determined that 
it shall depend on the soil for the nutriment gathered by its roots. 
Cutting sets in this very tedious way requires more time than ac- 
cords with the population and high price of labour in this country. 
By cutting; the sets so small, the organization which forms the stem 
and roots, will, without very great attention, be often more or less 
deranged by cutting a part of it off, and the plant be debilitated 
from this cause, as well as from too little nutriment, for its infant 
support. 

It should be observed, that though the planting with narrow in- 
tervals may be the best, I have no practical information on this sub- 
ject, having never planted in that way. Stumps and superficial 
roots will not admit the practice here. My planting below was 
confined to wider intervals, and but too frequently with the inju- 
rious addition of double rows. But be the intervals wide or nar- 
row, a level and very superficial cultivation of the plants should be 
practised. 

•More care is generally taken in that country than here to prevent them from 
degenerating'. 



238 

In the wider intervals, the hoe harrow, with the tined harrow fol- 
lowing it, and hand hoes following the latter, will be best. In the 
narrow intervals, the skim, with a rake attached to the hinder part 
of it, should be introduced. If stumps and superficial roots obtain, 
the shovel plough will be best, until a better tool is invented for 
this purpose. 

After the fruit roots are in danger, the cultivation should be 
more especially shallow ; barely deep enough to extirpate weeds : 
consequently the tines in the tined harrow should be regulated, or 
much mischief will be done by them. The hand hoes will also dip 
by far too deep, if they be not closely watched. Cultivation must 
cease when the tops of the plants, by leaning into the intervals, 
would be injured by it. However, when this happens, they gene- 
rally shade the soil so much as to keep most of the weeds under. 
After this, such vigorous weeds as may happen to outtop the vines, 
should be cut off" by the ground with a knife ; pulling them up by 
the roots uncovers the bulbs and injures the crops. In cutting off 
the weeds, great care should be taken not to misplace the stems 
and leaves, or the crop will be much more injured than many culti- 
vators seem to imagine ; as it is presumed that they would not man- 
gle this and other plants so sadly in the cultivation of them, if they 
believed it was highly injurious to them. 

Having observed that the timber on a high dry ridge, where the 
soil was very thin, had been girdled some years, and that the land 
had not been cultivated, I inquired the cause, and was informed 
that a former occupant had intended to cultivate it, but finding that 
another part of the same poor ridge would not grow even tolerable 
potatoes as a first crop, he had abandoned the project and cleared 
where the land was much better. 

As it, however, seemed to make the place look desolate, I had 
the underwood, grubs, &c. removed from about two acres of it, and 
the ground prepared for a mixed crop of maize and potatoes. When 
this was known, my neighbours said if tolerable crops of either of 
those plants were grown on this ground, the same might be done on 
the barren ridges of the Allegheny. 

The corn was planted in rows half a perch asunder, and the po- 
tato sets in single rows between the rows of maize, nine inches 
apart, from centre to centre of the sets. The soil was generally 
covered with a low growing plant called tea berry, or mountain tea. 
The roots of this diminutive plant are large, and run through the 
soil to an incredible distance; especially under the trunks of fallen 
timber. 

After the potato sets were planted, the furrows were filled up 
with the roots of this plant, and other vegetation found on the 
grounds. These should have been covered lightly with ground, to 
promote fermentation, but other business prevented it from being 
done, until the potato plants were cultivated, at which time they 
were from nine to twelve inches high. 

As the corn rows were wide apart, and but one single row of po- 



239 

tatoes planted between them, it was thought that two plants might be 
left standing in each cluster, which were eighteen inches apart in the 
rows: however, when the maize began to shoot its prop roots, tas- 
sels, and ears, the change in the colour of it clearly determined the 
error of by far too many plants, for so thin a soil, and nearly lialf 
of them were speedily cut off by the ground ; but not in time to 
prevent extensive injury. However, where the crop was not preyed 
upon by the rackoons, which came in from a thick shaded wood ad- 
joining to the patch, the product was much better than I expected 
when I first saw the ruinous error of more plants than the soil was 
capable of perfecting, unless the roots of the tea berry had been 
sufficiently covered with earth to promote the fermentation and de- 
composition of them. But numerous superficial roots from the gir- 
dled timber, joined with bad ploughing, had prevented this from 
being done. 

The potatoes were good ; equal in size to Dr. Dewees and Mr. 
Philips's crop of that root, grown on a better soil, manured with 
dung. The cultivation of this mixed crop was level, and the result 
determines that rich and expensive manure is not necessary to grow 
valuable crops of potatoes. 

When the maize and potatoes were removed, the ground was 
ploughed up into high, sharp, one bout ridges. It remained in this 
state until spring, when the ridges were leveled as soon as frost 
would permit, by the tined harrow, and spring wheat immediately 
sown and covered by the same tool. Timothy seed was sown 
immediately after the wheat. This was done to determine how 
that grass would prosper in a dripping climate, on a high, dry, and 
poor ridge, which had not been exhausted by cropping. 
. The wheat crop was productive, but would have yielded more if 
tiie seedsman had sown two bushels to the acre. But not being ac- 
customed to sow more than one, it was seen, by the quantity remain- 
ing unsown, that he had employed only about one bushel and a half 
to the acre. The timothy was mowed this year, and the crop was 
light. The aftergrowth, however, seems to denote that the crop of 
the ensuing year will be much better, as it has generally a healthy 
and vigorous appearance. This change for the better, may have 
happened from the more extensive decay of the roots of the moun- 
tain tea, and other hard vegetation. The former when the potatoes 
were removed, were hoed up from the furrows in matted flakes, 
several feet long, with but little appearance of change. However, 
as the cultivator should in the general course of his business, have 
profit and improvement in view, I would advise him to sow red 
clover on such soils, if that seed can be had. Still there can be but 
little doubt that after the first crop of grasses grown on this patch 
has been three years annually mowed, and the second crops suffe'ed 
to decay on the grounds, the soil will be ameliorated, and better 
calculated to grow the same, or any other round of cultivated crops, 
and th6 grasses which should follow them. 

It may be laid down as a maxim in farming, that unless the soil 



240 

be steril, or bordering on it, the ultimate improvement, or exhaust- 
ing of it, depends more on how it be managed, than whether it be 
rich or poor, when the management commences ; too many farmers, 
however, think otherwise. They have long been moving from 
one place to another, still further back, in quest of a soil, which 
will bear perpetual ploughing and cropping, and never wear out. 
When the Pacific Ocean puts a stop to their progress, it is possible 
they will be convinced, that no such soil exists, unless it so happens, 
that flattering prospects are held out to them from the other side 
of it. 

Some cultivators have grown good crops of potatoes, by scooping 
out the eyes, and planting them, but others have tried this practice 
without success. 

The practice is not a good one, as it does not provide sufficient 
nutriment of the best kind, for the infant plant; however, where 
provision is scarce, it should be employed, as much food may be 
saved, when it is most wanted. The crop may be so managed, as 
to be profitable, provided the eyes be scooped out so carefully, 
that the organization of them, to its full depth and width, be gene- 
rally preserved. 

To effect this purpose, spread the manure over the grass lay, af- 
ter this is done, turn it by tlie plough, not more than seven inches 
deep ; consolidate the furrow slices with the rollers ; then pulve- 
rise the soil well by the hoe harrow, with the tined harrow follow- 
ing it, at least three inches deep. Form the furrows for planting, 
so that the sets will be four inches below the surface, after the fur- 
rows have been filled up, and the soil settled by rain, &c. In the 
furrows thus formed, sprinkle a little rich fresh dung, barely suffi- 
cient to promote the early growth of the plants. On this, place the 
sets, and cover them not more than two inches deep with the loose 
pulverised soil ; taking care that no clods or stones be introduced 
with it. When the plants have attained a sufficient height, fill up 
the furrows, by the first cultivation of them ; this will require but 
little extra labour, as the cultivation by the hoe and tined harrows 
may be readily ordered, so as generally to effect this purpose. 

The failure in planting sets of this description, has proceeded 
from covering them too deep at first ; or from doing this with long 
dung, filled with litter, or clods, and other substances, which the 
stems of the plants, growing from sets affording so little nutriment, 
could not penetrate ; or, from not providing in the bottom of the 
farrows, rich manure, to supply as well as it might be done, the 
deficiency of nutriment in the sets. 

Here again, we see the great analogy between plants and animals. 
Also, that an intimate acquaintance with this interesting subject, 
would naturally lead us to great improvement in agriculture. The 
animal, while in its infant state, must have food provided for it, 
as similar to that furnished by its dam, as may be readily procured, 
or it does not thrive. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



On hand hoeing; also drilling turnips The seed is generally sown too late. On 
sowing it, so as great!)- to lessen the risk of injury from the fly. Observations 
on tlie ruta baga, or Swedish turnip. 

i. URNiPS are valuable for culinary purposes, also for feeding cattle. 
The crop is seldom hoed or otherwise cultivated in this country; 
therefore they cost the farmer but little labour. However, pulling, 
topping, and securing them is tedious, especially as the weather is 
commonly frosty and cold when this is done. Therefore, if there 
be a variety which will withstand the severity of our winters, it 
should be introduced. As the plant grows much faster in this coun- 
try than it does in England, it is not in the same danger of being 
overrun by weeds; but as British farmers have greatly improved 
the seed of this plant, and spare no labour in the cultivation of it, 
the root grows vastly larger there, and is much more productive. 
If the same were done here, the farmer would be amply remunerated 
for the increased attention and labour bestowed on the crop. As 
the seed is frequently sown in this country on ground recently clear- 
ed from its wood, in such cases the labour of keeping the crop free 
from weeds would be but little. 

Some of our cultivators can sow the seed sufficiently regularly to 
favour the uniform growth of the plants. Still this is seldom done, 
and when it has been accomplished, weeds too often take possession 
of the vacant ground between the plants, before they attain a suffi- 
cient size to smother them. If this does not happen, the fly, or other 
causes, too often frustrate the design, by the destruction of the 
plants. In this case, not only the labour and rent of the soil are lost, 
but the cultivator's live stock also suffers, unless he may happen to 
have a surplus of other food to makeup the deficiency. 

The injury done by the fly may be often avoided. If the seed be 
sown broad cast, sow at least two pounds to the acre; harrow this 
in well, but not with tines calculated to bury any of it more than 
three inches deep.* If it be sown by the drill-form, the furrows 
scarcely three inches deep, a rake, with tines properly constructed, 
should be attached to the hinder part of the drill, to fill up the fur- 
rows. After this, remove the coulters from the drill, and sow a suf- 
ficiency of seed on the surface, and brush it very lightly in. The 
seed, superficially covered, either by the brush, harrow, or drill, 
will generally come up first. 

• It is doubtful, if the seed be buried deeper, whetlier it would vegetate and 
v-ome up. 

H h 



242 

If the plants be cut off by the fly, those IVom the seed buried 
deepest may escape. If moisture below, and a dry surface, cause 
the seed which are buried the deepest to come up first, the effect 
may still be the same. It will cost but little labour to remove the 
supernumerary plants, if the seed generally succeeds. 

If the plants be sown broad cast, even one hand hoeing will very 
much increase the product. It will not be very costly if the farmer 
aids the business with his personal attention ; by which, it is pre- 
sumed, the hoers will be much encouraged, and instructed in a busi- 
ness which they neither understand nor seem to wish to learn in 
this country. 

The supernumerary plants should be early removed. When they 
are suflfered to stand in clusters until the root spindles upward, the 
crop is greatly injured. The buds quickly form, and rapidly increase 
in size, when the plants are early thinned. In this case, neither 
the leaves nor root are incommoded. The former spreads out luxu- 
riantly near to the ground ; and the latter takes on its proper form 
in and near the surface of the soil. 

Since my residence in Philipsburg, I shovel-ploughed a small 
field which had been cleared some years before, but not cultivated ; 
of consequence, overrun with weeds and matted patches of grass. 
It was also so filled with stumps and superficial roots, that the in- 
troduction of the long plough to turn this vegetation under the soil 
seemed to be impracticable. 

After hoeing round the stumps, and harrowing the rough surface 
as well as I could get it done, turnip seed was sown. This was done 
by an old experienced farmer. He remarked, that the grounds were 
too rough, and the seed too early sown, to obtain a tolerable crop. 

I, however, prevailed on him to sow the seed much thicker than 
usual, after it was harrowed in, the matted sods of grasses and 
■weeds were turned by the hand, with the roots uppermost. When 
the plants attained a proper size, they were thinned, and the grasses 
and weeds eradicated by the hand hoe ; but neither was done as well 
as I wished. It was found in this case as in most others, difficult to 
get American labourers to execute a business with care and atten- 
tion, which they are not convinced ought to be done. 

Still the crop was luxuriant, and the turnips larger than any I had 
ever seen before. The seed was sown on the 8th of July. This was 
considered quite too soon by the neighbouring farmers. It was con- 
fidently asserted by them, that the turnips would be small, stringy, 
and worthless. I had, however, observed that their turnips were 
small, and crops unproductive, in consequence of being too late 
sown. 

The 8th of July may be too soon to sow the turnip in the vicinity 
of Philadelphia. Still, if it were possible to persuade farmers that 
frost does not make this (or indeed any other) plant grow, they 
would sow that seed earlier than they now do, even there. 

In Great Britain, the turnips reserved for spring feeding are sown 
later than the crop grown for winter consumption. That practice, 



243 

lowever, could do but little good here, where this root is destrojed 
by the frequent thaws and very severe frosts of our winters. The 
same has also happened to the ruta baga or Swedish turnips which 
I have seen grown in this country. This may, however, occur by 
procuring the seed from England, where the farina fecundans from 
the blossom of the common turnip creates a variety which is much 
less hardy than the original plant, but still hardy enough to with- 
stand the winters of England, where the common turnip frequently 
escapes any serious injury from frost. 

Gentlemen who are fond of improvement, and who wish to intro- 
duce a valuable addition to our agricultural resources, should im- 
port the seed of this plant from Sweden, and from that part of it 
where it is least likely to be contaminated, from an accidental mix- 
ture with a less hardy variety. Also, if possible, from a good cul- 
tivator, who has improved his seed by selection, good cultivation, 
and a plentiful supply of nutriment for growing the crop. Certainly 
the valuable properties of plants, and of their fruit, are increased in 
the stamina and organization of the seed, the same as that of ani- 
mals ; and the same judicious selection, as it respects size, form, and 
valuable properties, is equally necessary; as is also an abundance 
of nutriment, joined with good cultivation. 

We would not readily believe that the breed of cattle was to be 
improved by feeding them on straw through the winter, and turn- 
ing them out through the spring j|ummer, and fall, to obtain a scanty 
supply of grass, from road ana lane sides, or commons fed bare, 
where runtling bulls, which are, in common, plenty in such places, 
would be the sire of the calves reared from them. 

A change in locality, to where better management and a plenty 
of nutriment prevailed, would in time greatly improve even this 
degenerate breed. If, however, they were removed from one neigh- 
bourhood or state to another, as long as the world lasted, and no 
better food and management prevailed, they could never improve. 
Time would gradually degenerate them into a very small, hardy 
race, capable of existing where a better breed of cattle would be 
starved to death, or destroyed by the diseases which are the off- 
spring or companions of poverty. Nearly the same happens to 
seeds strewed over a poor soil. Some varieties perish altogether, 
others that are more hardy remain torpid until the grounds are en- 
riched. There are, however, many which vegetate and grow ; but 
these, unless their nature and properties are congenial with a poor 
soil, never fail to degenerate in their stamina and organization, 
until they become accommodated to the soil. In the latter case, the 
fruit obtained from them is small, and the quantity inconsiderable. 
The same weight or measure of it is nothing like so rich and nutri- 
tive as that obtained from improved seed of the same description 
sown on grounds well cultivated, and containing sufficient nutri- 
ment for the plants. 

Drilling turnips, in rows from eighteen to twenty-seven inches 
asunder, and thinning the plants, so that they will stand from nine 



244 

to twelve inches apart, from centre to centre of them, and keeping 
thero free from weeds, with the skim, will produce much larger 
crops, than are obtained by sowing the seed broad cast, and hand 
hoeing the grounds, or by drilling the seed and ridging up the plants. 
Ridging cuts oft' and laps over the lateral roots, which run exten- 
sively through an open and free soil. It likewise confines them in 
heaped up ridges, also forces them to take unnatural directions, and 
compels the plants to form a multitude of very injurious roots from 
the sides of their bulbs.* The soil will likewise be far better pre- 
pared, and with much less labour, than by either ridging or the hand 
hoe, for small grain, and the grasses following it. 

If a grass lay be selected for the turnip crop, and sufficiently^ ma- 
nured, also prepared in the way which has been before described, 
the product will be luxuriant. However, it should be observed, that 
if stumps and superficial roots obtain, the distance between the 
rows of plants, should be at least thirty inches. 

Since the foregoing remarks were written, my neighbour, Mr. 
llardman Philips, has been in England. He brought back with him 
the seed of the ruta baga, procured from a distinguished British 
cultivator, who assured him it had been carefully grown, and not 
mixed with other varieties. 

Mr. Philips drilled this seed, by a very simple drill, made with 
but little labour and expense, on ground abounding with stumps^ 
and superficial roots, but very rich.-pThe crop is the most luxuriant, 
I have ever seen of turnips of any variety. It however so happened, 
that the plants on about three-fourths of the land were cut off" by 
the fly. This part of the ground was resown, and the plants grow- 
ing on it were very luxuriant j but the fall must be favourable if 
they attain full perfection. 

Mr. P. has determined not to pull them up in the fall. If they 
should remain unhurt through the winter, they will be a very valu- 
able addition to the agricultural resources of this settlement. 

July, 1818. The winter has passed by, it was uncommonly severe, 
often excessively cold, and then again warm enough to thaw the 
surface of th© ground. To avoid the risk of a total loss, Mr. P. had 
a part of his ruta baga pulled and secured in the fall. About two- 
thirds of those left standing where they grew, were more or less in- 
jured by frost; some of which were entirely rotten. Yet it may be 
that if the sound and hardiest looking bulbs, which had braved the 
winter's frost were annually selected, and planted out for seed, a 
variety might be obtained which would stand the severity of Ameri- 
can winters. For it is said that bees carry the farina fecundans to 
considerable distances, and by this means, unthought of mixtures 
are produced. 

• A considerable part of the turnip naturally grows above the ground, when 
this is covered with soil, the plant is compelled to exhaust its energies in grow- 
ing from the covered surface of tlie bulb, a multitude of useless and injurious 
roots. 



245 

It would seem, however, that the barley following Mr. P.'s ruta 
baga, is so inferior to that which last jear followed after his corn, 
that he will take but little if any care to improve the seed. Still I 
believe the seed ought to be improved, for the plant is vastly more 
nutritive than the common turnip. It is also in my estimation, more 
agreeable for table use. Some of the roots grown by Mr. P. weighed 
eight pounds, after their tops and tails were cut off. If the plants 
from the first sowing had stood, it would have been the heaviest crop 
of turnips by far that I have ever seen grown. The leaves of this 
plant are very sensibly affected by heat ; they will droop, early in 
th? fall, when the sun shines but moderately warm. 



CHAPTER XX. 



On the carrot, parsnip, and beet. Also, on mangling the beet, the grape vine 
and other plants. On sowing msuze, broad cast, for soiling. 

jN o question but the carrot, beet, and parsnip, are very nutritive 
food for domesticated animals. However, as I know nothing prac- 
tically of those roots, but in my garden, little will be said of them ; 
except on the injurious practice of pulling the leaves of the beet, 
while the plant is perfecting its root. 

So far as my experiments and observation extended, it was clearly 
seen, that nature had made the tops of plants equally as necessary 
to the health and vigour of them as are their roots. I have ever ob- 
served that mutilating the former, never fails to injure the general 
economy of the plant ; therefore I am compelled to believe that when 
vegetation is better understood, it will be clearly seen, that very se- 
rious loss occurs from pulling off the leaves of the beet, before its 
root is perfected, in place of the very great gain which some gentle- 
men confidently assert, arises from this irrational practice. 

If independently of this loss, the gentlemen who boast of the great 
value of the leaves of the beet, were to calculate the expense of pul- 
ling and gathering them, I am indeed greatly mistaken if they 
would not find that the milk and butter, obtained by this very tedi- 
ous and expensive practice, will cost (at least in this country,) 
much more than they would sell for, after adding the necessary ex- 
penses of the dairy, marketing, &c. ; without taking into considera- 
tion that when grass is plenty, (which commonly happens when the 
leaves are used,) the labour is entirely lost. 

I have before observed, that a very great loss occurs in potatoes, 
if the tops be cut for feeding cattle when the plants are perfecting 
their roots : yet it has been asserted, with equal confidence, as ot 
the beet, that this does not happen. 

Mr. Bordley also says, " The husbandmen in America would do 
well to try the method of cultivating maize practised in Italy, 
France and Spain, where it is sown very thick, broad cast, for pro- 
ducing fodder, and for stall feeding, or soiling; and when for a 
crop of corn, is planted in squares of two feet, and even the blades 
are daily pulled and given to the cattle."* 

In this country, labour seems too scarce and high to employ the 
plough for the express purpose of growing green crops of this descrip- 
tion, for feeding cattle. I am also disposed to believe, that in any 

• See his book on Husb. page 463 



247 

ountry where a good system of husbandry is pursued, proper grasses^ 
oven for soiling, will be found by far the most economical prac- 
tice, an(h of consequence, much the best. 

If, however, it should be found otherwise, it is probable that no 
plant can be more profitably employed for this purpose than maize. 
I have tried the Guinea corn for soiling. It suckered greatly after 
the first cutting. If it be early sown, in a rich soil, it may be cut 
three times, if the climate be favourable. 

I believe, though I have never tried the experiment, that the same 
would happen, if the corns common to the country were sown for 
this purpose : provided the first cutting commenced before the prop 
roots and ear shoots appear. It should, also, be cut the second 
time before this happened, mdre especially if a third cutting was 
xpected.* The little yellow, or white, is best for this use, as they 
•ucker much more than the larger corns ; particularly the gourd- 
seed. 

Whoever will make himself acquainted with the economy of 
maize, will see that scarcely any practice can be more destructive 
than stripping off the blades from this plant prematurely, when it 
is grown for " a crop of corn." Yet Mr. Bordley's book on Agri- 
culture is a very valuable work ; for, saying the least that can be 
said of it, it contains more valuable information on this subject than 
any other which I have seen that has been written in this country. 
However, I have not seen the agricultural essays entitled Arator, 
said to be written by a citizen of Virginia. Judge Peters says, " he 
is an able advocate for the use of long and hot muck." So far, this 
writer is certainly correct, if the President means, (as I believe he 
does,) fresh dung well stored with litter. But to return to the mu- 
ilation of plants. 

Although the practice of mangling and otherwise mutilating 
plants, of almost every description, has been advocated and highly 
recommended, by gentlemen of distinguished talents and extensive 
agricultural information; yet this is no proof that the practice is 
not injurious, and also irrational. 

For notwithstanding we are indebted to some of these gentle- 
men for very valuable improvements in agriculture, still, it is clear 
that a laudable desire to improve, has induced too many of them 
to introduce practices immediately opposed to nature ; and to pay 
too little respect to obvious causes and effects. These ought al- 
ways to govern the practice of every cultivator, at least so far as 
to prevent him from admitting any opinion or practice opposed to 
nature, reason, common sense, and observation. 

It is, however, evident that in some cases it is rational, and, of 
consequence, best to admit a less evil to prevent a greater. Thus 
lucerne should be cut off when overrun by the insects which some- 

• I have often noticed in fields that if the plant be broken off by the ground, 
while it is young', it quickly grows again from the stub, and that this does not 
happen after the ear shoots appear. 



248 

limes infest this crop while it is young. This, by destroying these 
intruders, puts a speedy end to the depredations committed by 
them, and the grass grown afterwards is very valuable, notwith- 
standing it may be less productive than it would have been if the 
plants had escaped injury. 

Maize, in climates where it is subject to be destroyed by early 
frost in the fall, when it is planted at the usual time, ought to be 
put much earlier into the ground, as it suflfers vastly less by being 
cut off in the spring. 

If the trees in a nursery be mangled by cattle, or in any other 
way, the wounded parts should be removed, as they will sooner re- 
gain what they have lost by this manifest injury. 

If the peach tree be cut off close to the ground while it is young, 
numerous branches spring from the stump. We are told that this 
alteration in the usual form given to the plant, alters the economy 
of it so much that it will live and produce fruit for many years. 

Now, if this be a fact, it would seem that the practice should be 
pursued by those who know it will answer, until they become ac- 
quainted with a better mode of management ; notwithstanding it 
will procrastinate the gathering of fruit from the tree, and seem 
to compel planting the stone, in place of improved scions, or 
grafts. 

There exists, however, no reason why plants should be generally 
barbarously mutilated, or that the general economy of them should 
be so much altered, as is sometimes done in our vineyards and or- 
chards. 

After examining Mr. Joseph Cooper's grape vine, and the incre- 
dible quantity of fruit hanging so closely together on it, it would 
be very difficult to persuade me that he could have obtained any 
thing like the same quantity of grapes from the ground overspread 
by this extensive plant, if it had been as thickly set with as many 
vines as could have been grown and cultivated on it in the usual 
way of cutting down and trimming the plants. 

In fact, it seems irrational to believe that nature would have 
formed the branches of this plant so very extensive, for any other 
purpose than that of rendering it more productive. This seems 
clearly demonstrated by the product of Mr. Cooper's vine : yet the 
wisdom of man has been such that it has discovered, through the 
medium of inconsiderate theories, that nature has been greatly mis- 
taken in the formation of this plant. They, of consequence, have 
greatly altered it by art, and much for the better, if it were possi- 
ble for reason, common sense, and observation, to believe the vo- 
lumes which have been written on this subject. 

It is, however, evident that this extensive mutilation of the plant 
must cause a very different circulation of the sap from that which 
takes place when it is suffered to retain its native form. 

Notwithstanding reducing the natural spread of its branches will 
diminish the extent and vigour of its roots, still they will be too ex- 
tensive for the size of their circumscribed tops. The small slope 



249 

left for the sap to circulate in, above the soil, seems in itself suffi 
cient to cause the rupture of many of the more tender vessels, and 
produce mildew, disease, and even death ; especially in this country, 
where the natural course of vegetation is very rapid. 

That the rapidity of the circulation of the sap is greatly increased 
by the diminution of the top of plants, is clearly seen by the ex- 
ceedingly quick growth of the sprouts, which spring from the 
stumps of such a variety of trees as put out suckers after they have 
been cut down. 

I have been informed that some cultivators, in order to obtain a 
still more rapid growth of the most thrifty and best looking suckers, 
which sprung up around stumps, have destroyed the whole by the 
too speedy removal of a part. The reason assigned for this unex- 
pected destruction was too rapid a flow of the sap. 

However, as it is said domesticated animals do not relish the top 
of the parsnip, it does not seem to be concerned in what has been 
said on mutilating the top of the beet before its roots are perfected. 

But, as I am told, this plant prospers best when the seed is sown 
in the fall, it is considered proper to apprise the reader of this : 
also, to advise him to sow about the time when nature scatters tJTe 
seed from the plant : especially as I have seen much larger roots 
grown in my garden, by what is called volunteer plants, than I have 
ever observed from seed sown in the spring, on beds well manured 
and prepared for this purpose. 

The parsnip does not appear to be injured by frost in the winter, 
but the cultivator ought to remove it from the ground very early in 
the spring, and put the roots where they will not vegetate. It seems 
to be well attested that this root has been known to acquire a deadly 
poisonous property after it commences shooting the stems on which 
the seed is formed. 

This appears to be confirmed by the poisonous property of the 
leaves. I nave seen the legs and arms of some who worked among 
the plants, while they were wet with dew, blistered, and considera- 
bly inflamed, while others working among them escaped unhurt. 



li 



CHAPTER XXI. 



On the arrangement, and superficial cultivation of a crop of maize. In what 
cases, lime may be profitably used for tliis crop ; also, how it should be 
manag'ed, and applied. The benefit arising from rolling the seed in gyp- 
sum ; also, from covering them with a compost formed with light loose 
soil and dung. How seed is to be gathered and preserved. On the ma- 
nagement to be pursued, when heavy rain, &c. forms a hard crust, which 
the plants cannot penetrate. When, and how, the grain and fodder of this 
crop should be gathered and cured. 

rp 

J- o explain the proper cultivation of maize, and illustrate the great 
value of superficial cultivation, and also show that a large crop of 
corn may be grown with but little comparative nutriment, when 
the manure and roots of the grasses remain at the bottom undis- 
turbed by useless, expensive, and very injurious labour, I will de- 
bcribe the cultivation of one acre of ground. 

This was measured oft" near the cabin on iny farm, that it might 
be the better defended from birds, and for the express purpose of 
growing a very large crop of corn; for, although 1 had not either 
professed or believed, that I understood the proper arrangement of 
that plant, yet I recollected 1 had never been disappointed in obtain- 
ing large and well filled ears, when only thirty-three plants were 
suffered to stand in the length of one perch in the rows : provided, 
the intervals were wide enough to admit sufficient scope for sun 
and air, and the soil was only tolerable, and properly manured. 

My mixed crop of maize and beans, planted the preceding spring, 
which will be hereafter described, induced me also to believe, if no 
other plant but corn were introduced, that intervals of five and a 
half feet, with clusters eighteen inches apart on the rows, suffering 
only three plants to grow in each cluster, would admit a sufficiency 
of sun and air ; and this arrangement was adopted. 

The soil on which this crop grew, was naturally thin, and had been 
exhausted by perpetual ploughing and cropping for several years, 
without any attention to grass, or manure ; except, that nearly one 
half of it had been manured, in 1813, by a former occupant, for corn 
and potatoes, which were followed by rye. The dung had intro- 
duced on this part of the ground, a tolerable stubble crop of red 
clover ; the remainder of the patch was covered by white clover, 
with some other native grasses thinly scattered among it; but the 
whole had been fed very bare in the fall. 

I had intended to manure the ground highly, but untoward cir- 
cumstances prevented that portion of the manure, which lay at some 
distance from the farm, from being hauled.. 



251 

The thinnest part of the patch was first manured ; on that tlie 
quantity and quality appeared, generally, to justify the expectation 
of a large crop of corn ; however it afterwards appeared, that so thin 
a soil required much more manure to do this. On the remaining, 
and better ground, the covering of manure was much thinner than 
I had been accustomed to apply, either for Indian corn or potatoes. 

I had intended to spread thirty bushels of lime over the acre, 
after the manure had been turned under the sod. When the lime 
arrived it was nearly as wet as mortar ; consequently could not be 
incorporated with the surface of the soil, so as to expect any mate- 
rial benefit from it, and it was not applied. 

It was intended to turn the lay six inches deep, but numerous 
superficial roots proceeding from many large stumps, prevented a 
regular depth of ploughing ; therefore it was not ploughed more 
than four inches deep in many parts of the patch. 

However, staking out the ground, at the head and foot of the field, 
preserved a tolerable regularity in the furrows formed for planting ; 
which were not less than three inches deep.* When a stump inter- 
vened, the furrows were formed round it, with the hand hoe : this 
preserved the full number of plants, or rather more. A wheelbar- 
row, with indenting blocks fastened on the wheel, made marks for 
planting, at proper distances in the furrows. 

From ten to twelve grains were dropped in each cluster, and the 
whole length of the furrow filled up as high as the covering of the 
seed, which should not be more than one inch deep ; when the clus- 
ters only are covered, the vacancy left between them causes the 
seed to be often washed out of the ground by heavy rains; especially 
if a descent in the field favour the injury. The continued covering, 
particularly if it be tapped by the hoe, retards evaporation, and 
promotes the germination of the seed. 

When the plants were generally from three to four inches high, 
the surface of the soil in the intervals was scraped with the shovel 
plough ; this should never be done deeper than is absolutely neces- 
sary to eradicate weeds ; this instrument was followed by a light 
common harrow, with handles and blunt tinesf to level the soil, 
overturn and mangle such weeds, as had been cut off, but not effec- 
tually destroyed by the shovel plough ; hand hoers followed the har- 
row, to cut off the weeds and grass, but very superficially, from be- 
tween the clusters : and also pull up such as could not be removed 
by the hoe, without wounding the plants. 

The first cultivation leveled the furrows, which were not filled 
when the seed was planted ; after the seed at the root was generally 
decayed, the plants were thinned. The suckers were removed, as 
often as they appeared in sufficient size to admit the operation ; 

* This depth seems necessary, as It prevents, to a certain extent, the plants 
falling down before the prop roots are established. 

t Blunt tines do not dip so deep, therefore are not so likely to injure the 
roots of the plants. 



252 

none, however, were pulled off higher than from the joint in contact 
with the ground, for reasons which have been explained. 

The succeeding cultivations were executed in the same manner 
as the first, except the last, which took place, some time after the 
, shooting, and in part filling of the ears. 

As my ploughman was both careless and obstinate, and the hand 
hoers too long accustomed to dip deep, I dreaded both these opera- 
tions in this stage of the crop, although either may be performed 
with the utmost safety, when carefully done; the weeds, however, 
happened not to be firmly established, and the hand hoers alone, by 
stooping a little more than usual, and lightly rubbing the edge of 
their hoes, from and to them, over the surface of the soil, completely 
eradicated the weeds; and with much greater expedition than if it 
had been done by the hand hoe in the usual way. 

So much depends on the depth of ploughing, weather, and condi- 
tion of the soil ; also, on whether the first cultivation be, or be not 
eftectually executed, that it is impossible to say how often a crop of 
mai/e should be cultivated ; it is, however, sufficient to observe, it 
should be done as often as it is found that weeds and grass are 
likely to injure the crop. They do this whenever they appear in 
sufficient size and number to rob the plants of any material portion 
of the nutriment contained in the soil, therefore should be eradi- 
cated as often as they become thus injurious, more especially, as 
this will far better prepare the soil for following crops ; and the 
superficial cultivation is not only safe, but also done with but 
little comparative labour. 

The same is equally applicable to any fallow crop, when a super- 
ficial cultivation is practised. But maize (unless it be closely plant- 
ed) admits of longer, and more perfect cultivation than any other 
plant grown by us. 

The little patch now under consideration, lay immediately on the 
state road. The large size and number of ears, (though more than 
one on a plant seldom occurred,) caught the attention of travellers 
in general: many of whom stopped, and examined the crop through- 
out. But so great a novelty is even a tolerable crop of corn, (not 
only here, but in every place where I have been,) that these men ap- 
peared to be so much bewildered by the number of large ears, hang- 
ing in every direction through the field, that not one of them seem- 
ed to observe, that many of the stalks, where the manure had not 
been sufficient, either had no ears at all, or produced only nubbins 
of but little worth. 

This was more especially the case round the stumps, which, to- 
gether with the large superficial roots proceeding from them, occu- 
pied so much of the soil, that by far too little was left for the roots 
of the maize : especially as no more dung had been spread there, 
than on the rest of the ground. 

It has, however, turned out much better than I expected, for I 
had feared the greater part of the patch would have been much more 
unprodtictive, in consequence of the great disproportion between 



253 

the number of plants, and the food provided for them ; so it wouhl 
have happened, had not the deficiency in manure, been compensated 
for by a cultivation calculated to preserve the roots of the plants 
from injury, and to keep the manure at the bottom, where the fer- 
mentation and decomposition of it and the roots of the grasses, kept 
the soil open and mellow ; and also applied the nutriment which 
arises from these important processes of nature, to the utmost ad- 
vantage, and with the least possible waste. 

The result has been flattering. The ears were pulled off from one 
row of corn, running through the middle of the patch, which was 
twenty perches long and eight wide. These were measured, and 
by multiplying the number of rows by the product rff the row mea- 
sured, the quantity grown on the acre was estimated at one hundred 
and fifteen and a half bushels of shelled corn.* 

There can be little doubt, but a good grass lay well manured, and 
free from stumps and superficial roots, if it be arranged and culti- 
vated as above described, will yield one bushel of shelled corn for 
every square perch, making full allowance for shrinking in the crib. 

The ground is now in winter wheat, sown without any previous 
cultivation, covered shallow by the shovel plough ; and the plants 
"are healthy and vigorous.f 

The water furrowing for the wheat, clearly showed, by the dark 
coloured stratum of animal and vegetable matter, still lying secure 
under the furrow slices, formed by ploughing for the corn, that a 
soil cultivated in this way, will be richer after it has produced a 
crop of maize and wheat, than it would be after growing the maize 
alone, under the usual mode of cultivation. 

In case of a thin soil and light manuring, the corn crop, as well as 
the crop of small grain and grasses following the latter, will be 
greatly augmented if thirty bushels of lime, measured in the stone 
or shell, be spread to the acre, after the tined harrow has pulverised 
the surface of the inverted sod, and closed the seams between the 
furrow slices. 

In this case, if obstacles will admit, the lay should be ploughed 
seven inches deep. The lime very intimately incorporated with 
the surfaee of the soil, either by a light harrow, or the common har- 
row well brushed. If this is not done, the particles of lime lying 
in contact with each other, unite and form a limestone gravel, 
which will be of little value, when compared with that of the mi- 
nute particles of slaked lime, intimately blended with the soil. 

• When com is measured to estimate the product" of a crop, it is commonly 
done when the ears are husked, or veiy soon afterward ; conseq!iently, it is to 
be expected that it will shrink veiy considerably after this in the crib ; espe- 
cially in high latitudes, where it hardens slowly, and generally can-ies into the 
crib with it much more moisture than where the chmate is dry. However, this 
was certainly the greatest crop of com tliat has been grown by me any where, 
or in any way. 

t The wheat crop was a good one. The grasses following it have been mow» 
ed once, and were very productive. 



254 

A very superficial cultivation of this or any other plant (except 
such roots as are gathered by ploughing or hoeing them up,) is ex- 
actly calculated to keep the lime long on the surface. It also se- 
cures the farm yard manure, and the roots and tops of the grasses 
turned under with it, greatly, from the injurious action of the lime ; 
while the former is promoting vegetation under the lay, the latter 
is effecting the same purpose near the surface. 

The lime should be slaked, and kept in a dry place until it is 
spread, either from carts, waggons or sleds. When it is put out 
into heaps over the field, it commonly slakes badly. If considerable 
rain falls, it is reduced to mortar, and cannot be either spread over, 
or blended with* the soil, to tolerable advantage. In common, too 
much is left where the heaps stood. When this does not occur, 
nothing valuable will grow on the spots where the heaps lay, if they 
hapen to be suffered to remain unspread too long. 

It may not be useless to remind the cultivator again, that as lime 
is a stimulating manure, nothing further than present emolument 
is to be expected from it, unless the soil be properly managed after 
it has been applied. Lime never should be applied, unless the 
grounds are laid down in grass, when the small grain which follows 
the fallow crop is sown, provided no other manure than the tops and 
roots of the grasses have been applied for the corn or other fallow 
crops. Or even when the additional assistance from farm yard ma- 
nure, has been small. If, however, a judicious practice be pursued, 
the cultivator will find, that although lime is a powerful exhauster, 
when improperly used, it will greatly hasten the improvement of 
of his soil. It will increase the number, as well as the size, of the 
tops and roots of the grasses which follow the cultivated crops. This, 
if care be taken not to turn them up soon, for the commencement of 
another round of crops (unless dung be plenty,) will enrich the soil. 

Maize, when planted on a grass lay, does not progress fast in its 
growth, until a partial decomposition of the roots of the grasses 
has made a free passage for the roots of the plants j and also pro- 
vided sufficient nutriment for them ; nor even when dung has been 
spread over the lay until the roots of the plants find their way into 
it. It will, therefore, be found an excellent practice to coat the 
seed plentifully with gypsum, previously to planting it. This will 
cause the plants to grow with much greater rapidity, until they can 
procure sufficient assistance from the dung. This early growth, 
like that of young animals, forms a far more perfect and robust or- 
ganization of the plants, which will increase the product, and 
greatly facilitate the early ripening of the grain. The latter is more 
especially important in cold or backward climates. 

Where dung and labour are plenty, it will be found still more ad- 
vantageous to cover the seed with a compost formed of dung and 
light, loose soil ; provided a sufficiency of the former be used to 
promote a rapid growth of the plant. Care should, however, be ta- 
ken, not to introduce so much dung as would prove injurious to 
vegetation : also, not to use such as has litter incorporated with it. 



255 

tor this will certainly, more or less, oppose the coming up of the 
plants. 

When the plants are not covered with compost, this should be 
done by the richest, loosest, and moistest soil, within the reach of 
the hand hoers. Within the compass of this very limited distance, 
the difference between the value of this mould, which may be rea- 
dily obtained for this important purpose, is often very great. 

If the compost be carried through the fields in light carts, and 
the wheels are not too high, and shovels used for covering the seed, 
the labour will not be much increased. I have often seen shovels 
used for covering the seed, and the work as expeditiously and effec- 
tually done as by the hoe. 

Great care should be taken to select sound seed. If the grain 
has been much swelled by wet before it is housed, I have had cause 
to believe it cannot be relied on ; and that this effort to sprout may 
as effectually destroy the germinating powers of the seed, as if the 
sprout had actually appeared outside of the grain. 

If the grain has a mouldy appearance, it cannot be relied on, al- 
though the surface may seem perfectly sound. If, however, the 
heart of a few of the worst looking grains on an ear be superficially 
cut, with a very sharp knife, and it appears perfectly sound, also 
closely adhering to the harder sides of the grain, with which it 
should be firmly united, it is probable that the seed from that ear 
will vegetate. The grain at and near the point and but-end of the 
ear ought not to be planted ; the organization of it is not so perfect, 
neither will it supply the infant plant with as much nutriment as 
the larger and more perfect grain. 

Gather the seed, if practicable, when the husk is dry. After ex- 
amining the grain, bind up the ear in its own husk. A ready band is 
formed by splitting the husk and tying two pieces together. Hang 
up the ears in a dry place, taking care that they do not touch each 
other. Soon after this they should be carefully examined. If mois- 
ture from the cob or husk have introduced mould, every particle of 
it should be brushed off from the outside of the grain. The husks 
opened wide, and with the ears hanging to them, thinly spread out 
for two or three days on the floor of a dry room, turning them as 
occasion may seem to require. In moist climates, and wet seasons, 
frequent examination may be found necessary, until the cob and 
husk become perfectly dry. The husk defends the grain from ex- 
cessive cold, and prevents it from drying too fast or too much. 

It sometimes happens, even when the soil is only moderately ad- 
hesive, that dashing rains, followed by a warm sun or drying winds, 
form a crust on the surface, which the plants cannot penetrate. In 
this case, they should be liberated by breaking or removing the 
crust. This may be done by a very short headed rake with nails 
driven through it. They form tolerable good tines, if their sharp cor- 
ners be flattened with the hammer. When the cultivator suspects 
injury from crust, some few of the clusters ought to be daily exam- 



256 

ined. If he observes any of the points of the plants turning 
downward, the whole field should be immediately liberated. 

I once saved a small field in this way, although many of the roots 
of the plants were laid partly bare, and the stems appeared so ten- 
der, when they were uncovered, that serious damage was appre- 
hended. The injury, however, was small when compared with the 
great advantage gained by this very severe operation ; for the crop, 
on the whole, was a good one. 

The very superior power of farm yard manure, to increase the 
product, and also hasten the maturity, of a crop of maize, has been 
clearly established with me. 

Since my residence here, two fields adjoining each other were 
planted by me in corn. One had been much more exhausted than 
the other, and it was lightly manured. The other was cultivated 
without manure. Those who were well acquainted with both fields, 
and saw the scanty portion of manure which was applied to that 
which had been exhausted, concluded that the other field would 
produce the largest crop of maize. In this, however, they were 
greatly mistaken. The crop which had been manured very greatly 
exceeded the other. The ears, also, shot, filled, and ripened about 
two weeks sooner, although the exposure to the sun, and the earthy 
' texture of both fields seemed exactly the same. 

When the milk in the grain disappears, the corn plant may be cut 
oft'. However, the longer it stands, even after this, the better ; pro- 
vided it be cut oft' so soon as the leaves generally begin to cure, or 
die on the plants. If it stands longer, the fodder is often greatly 
damaged, and it is doubtful whether the grain is not as likely to be 
injured as benefited by continuing after this in the field : especially 
if the injury done by the birds and the quadrupeds be estimated. 
In the vicinity of Philadelphia, and similar climates, the fodder 
generally begins to cure, or die, on the stalk, before the plant is in- 
jured by frost. In this neighbourhood, and other places, where the 
sun is weak in the fall, and much cool, cloudy, and dripping weather 
occurs, the leaves of maize, (so far as I have yet observed,) conti- 
nue green until they are killed by frost. Still the husk, especially 
the interior leaves of it, wither slowly, and the grain gradually har- 
dens > but nothing like so rapidly as happens where more sun and 
clear weather prevail.* 

• It would seem, however, that a white flinty corn, got by Dr. Dewees and 
Mr- Philips, from near the town of Erie, is an exception to what has generally 
happened here. It was planted about the 10th of May, 1817, and was full 
hard enough to be cut off the 2l3t of September. The fodder was also at this 
time cui'ing> or dying a natural death on the stalk ; notwithstanding the spring 
and summer, until the fore part of A ugust, was so very unusually backward 
and cold, that it was gen(rrally believed the earliest variety of corn planted 
here, would be destroyed by frost before the grain was matured. This cor.i in 
size and form, is somewhat like the httle yellow commonly ))lanted in Pennsyl- 
yania ; but ripens earlier, some say two weeks, others one, perhaps the truth 
lies between the two extremes. However, Major B Wallace, who procured ■ 
and sent the seed, says, " it is said to be the best kiod that has been in this 



257 

When tops are cut and blades stripped in the usual way, the gene 
ral economy of the plant is greatly deranged, especially as at this 
time it is getting old and debilitated : of consequence, the grain, 
after this derangement, derives but little, if any, advantage from 
standing in the field; especially in dripping climates. I have seen 
the grain on many an ear of corn grown here become mouldy by 
remaining on the stalk in the field, after the tops were cut and the 
blades stripped from the plant. 

It would seem, in this case, that mutilating the plant so exten- 
sively when it becomes debilitated by age, deranges the general 
economy of it so much that the vessels are no longer capable of 
performing their functions properly; and the sap in the plants ex- 
udes from the roots, and is quickly absorbed by the soil: also, that 
the space which had been occupied by the sap is filled with com- 
mon moisture that injures the grain. 

If the plants be cut off, the sap which issues from the wounds 
dries quickly on them, and prevents the further escape of it. The 
putting up the plants into heaps greatly procrastinates the drying 
and closing up the pores in them, which contributes to a longer flow 
of the sap, and filling of the grain. 

It is evident that cutting off plants does not derange the general 
economy of them so much as to prevent a temporary circulation of 
the sap contained in the parts separated from the root, as branches 
and leaves are sometimes formed on logs after the outside of a house 
has been built with them, if the bark has not been stripped off. 

The corn plant should be cut off close to the ground, or the shrubs 
will be found greatly in the way of cultivating the soil. 

In the warmer and drier climates it may be set up in heaps as 
large as can be readily banded, and well formed. In dripping cli- 
mates the heaps should be much less. To form them readily and 
well, two men take their arms full of the plants, and set the buts 
of them on the ground a small distance apart, leaning the tops to- 
gether. One keeps those from falling, while the other sets up two 
more armsful in an opposite direction ; then both proceed to finish 

country. Mr. Rufus S. Reed, (whom I got the corn from,) last season planted 
the common corn at the same time he planted this ; and there were not thirty 
bushels to the acre, and it was much injured by frost. This corn, worked in 
the same manner, had upward of fifty bushels to the acre, of good corn, and 
was dry and fit to pull about four weeks before the other, and received no in- 
jury from the frost." 

Erie lies very considerably north of this, and the corn here was, that year, 
(to wit, 1816,) generally destroyed by frost. Dr. Dewees and Mr. Philips's 
crop of maize, grown from the seed sent by Major Wallace, was very luxm-iant, 
but being a smaller variety than 1 have been accustomed to grow, ' can form 
no tolerable idea of what it may have yielded to the acre- The ears, however, 
very considerably exceeded the size of those on which the seed grew Some 
of the best measured twelve inches long. There is a peculiarity in the eco- 
nomy of this corn, which I have not observed in any other variety. The inte- 
rior part of the husk, in place of being compactly wrapped round the ear, is 
found, by moderately oompressing the outside of it with the hand, quite loose 
and open, 

Kk 



258 

the heap. When this is done, two stalks, with the ears hanging on 
them, are linked together at the tassel ends; with these the heap is 
banded just above the ears on the stalks which form it. One stalk is 
sufficient for banding the top. This band should be placed where it 
will best diminish the diameter of the top, and also form that part 
of the heap below it, so as to run off the water arising from rain or 
snow expeditiously. The cars which fall off in handling the plants 
should be thrust into the heap just above the lowest band, so far 
that birds or wet may not injure them. The ears on the row which 
forms the outside of the heap, together with those hanging on the 
bands, should be turned inward to prevent injury from birds. A 
dog properly trained will prevent injury from the larger quadrupeds, 
and if the farmer keeps a sufficient number of cats, and manages 
them properly, long and well tried practice has convinced me he 
has little to fear from ground mice, rats, &c. These intruders often 
destroy much of the grain, and by burrowing under the heaps, 
greatly injure the grass grounds on which they may happen to 
stand. 

The plants are generally cut off by the hoe. This is a tedious 
and expensive practice. A man with an old worn out scythe will 
cut off more than double the quantity he could cut with a hoe, and 
with much greater ease to himself. The scythe is crooked at the 
point in a form fit for cutting; some rags wrapped round the heel 
serve for a handle. While the labourer grasps the stalks with one 
hand, he at one stroke cuts them off with the other, close by the 
ground ; and poising their buts with the point of the scythe, lays 
them in rows, perfectly straight, with very great expedition. A 
wooden handle would be an improvement to this very cheap and 
useful tool. This practice was introduced on my farm by a negro 
man, and banding the heaps with the stalks by another man of the 
same colour, previously to which much time and straw had been 
wasted in twisting bands for this purpose. The cultivator should 
never forget there are but few men so ignorant as not to be capable 
of teaching us something valuable which we did not know before. 
As the same may be justly said of books, we should patiently and 
carefully glean every valuable practice that maybe gathered from 
eithei*. I ought, however, to observe, that the low growing corns 
reejuire but one band placed near to the top of the heap. This is 
soonest and best done by using straw in the same way as for binding 
a large sheaf of wheat. 

So soon as the ears have become sufficiently cured for the crib, 
the corn should be husked; the fodder set up in heaps where it was 
husked. These may be as large as they can be readily banded, and 
well secured from wet. If no rain be suffered to fall on it after the 
corn is husked before the heaps are set up, it keeps better in this 
way than in mow or stack. The moisture in the tops and stalk 
causes it to mould, when a large quantity is closely confined toge- 
ther. ^ . 

The farmer should feed his fodder before he commences feedin* 



259 

hay, as the cattle will eat the tops much lower tiown while they 
are succulent. The stalks being harder than most other litter, will 
be better tramped and enriched by an early introduction into the 
..attleyard. 

The heaps may be hauled as they are wanted for feeding; by 
which means the stalks will get into the cattle yard with but little 
extra labour. 

Saving fodder in this way is very cheap, w^j^en compared with 
the tedious processes of topping and stripping, which leaves the 
stalks and frequently the husks in the field. 

Very hungry cattle will eat the husk after it has been stripped 
of the greatest part of the nutriment contained in it from being ex- 
posed to the weather. If the cattle behalf starved, they will eat a 
considerable part of the corn stalks left in the field while they are 
softened by rain. They, however, derive but little nutriment from 
either. 

If spring grain be sown after the maize, there will be still a much 
greater saving in gathering the fodder by cutting off the plant, as it 
may be set up in heaps where it grew ; consequently, hauled but 
once in place of twice before it gets into the cattle yard. This is 
greatly in favour of the practice of sowing spring grain after the 
corn, and winter wheat on the clover lay following the former. 

Having recommended the arrangement ciT my last crop of corn, 
as the best known tome, it should be observed, that so many plants 
as were left standing in it require a richer soil, trench ploughing 
eight or nine inches deep, and much more manure than was applied 
for it. I believe the crop would have been more productive, if only 
two plants had been suffered to stand in each cluster generally 
through the field, and but one where so much of the soil was occu- 
pied by stumps and large superficial roots. 

It is certainly much better to introduce too few than too many 
plants. The loss from the first error is confined to deficiency ia 
numbers alone. This loss is always more or less compensated for, 
in all cultivated crops, by larger ears, or more fruit from each plant 
than would have grown, even if the arrangement had been correct. 

When the soil or atmosphere is crowded with more plants than 
it is capable of perfecting, the injury is generally extended to 
the whole crop. If the soil is highly and deeply enriched, either by 
nature or art, with a due proportion of animal and vegetable matter, 
the evil arising from too thick planting is not so great. Still, as the 
health and vigour of plants, as well as of animals, seem to depend 
greatly on a free or sufficient admission of atmospheric air, they 
should never be too thickly sown or planted. Here, again, the 
analogy between plants and animals is very conspicuous. If men 
be too thickly crowded together, they look sallow, become enfeebled, 
and premature death often ensues. The same exactly happens to 
plants. 

The perpetual plougher and cropper feeds his horses and work- 
ing cattle, because he is soon taught, by the failure of the animal. 



260 

that it cannot be useful to him unless this be done. If he were 
equally as well acquainted with the analogy between plants and 
animals, it is presumed he would likewise see that the former can 
be of but little comparative value to him, if a sufficiency of nutri- 
ment is not also provided for them. Likewise, that this nutriment 
does not exist in the stimulating manures ; as he already knows 
that notwithstanding salt may stimulate the appetite of his horse or 
ox, and that it, witftothcr stimulants, render the food eaten by his 
family more agreeable, neither the one nor the other could live on 
these substances. In fact, agriculture never can prosper extensively, 
until farmers are generally convinced that plants, like animals, de- 
rive their nutriment from animal and vegetable matter alone. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



How, and in what cases, mixed crops, formed with maize and low growing 
t)lants are profitable. On the cultivation of a mixed crop of maize, and the 
kidney bunch bean. Beans bear transplanting better than corn. They, and 
every other plant, grow most luxuriantly in a rich soil. They are a very le- 
nient, also, a very profitable crop, if properly cultivated. The very close 
shade formed by their fohage, pulverises the soil more effectually, than is 
done by a naked fallow well prepared ; they of consequence prepare the 
soil well for small grain. Observ ations on sowing buckwheat among corn. 
Also, on planting pompions and beans, with long running vines among it. 
Where the potato sells well for table use, it will be found the most profitable 
plant, to form a mixed crop with maize. 

JVlixED crops, formed with maize, and low growing plants, are pro- 
fitable: especially, when the extent of soil is scarcely equal to the 
workers in the farmer's family. If corn be properly grown in this 
way, it may be said to occupy half the soil regularly through the 
field, and the plants grown between the rows of it, the other half. 

When the plants grown between the corn, produce as much in 
proportion to the soil allotted them, as they would do if planted by 
themselves in a separate field, it should not be considered improper 
to divide the rent of the soil between them and the maize. 

The only material advantage the corn derives from this arrange- 
ment, is a more extensive scope for the admission of sun and air. 
This advantage costs the farmer the extra labour naturally ari- 
sing from complex cropping ; the increased product is, however, 
considerable, and may in many cases, be obtained without adding 
much, if any thing, to the annual expenses of the farm. 

Having discovered, that heaping up of the soil in ridges, when 
plants are cultivated, confines the roots of them too much, even 
when the intervals are wide, and also causes them to take very un- 
natural directions through it; this leads me to believe, that low- 
growing plants, might be advantageously grown between the rows 
of maize, when they were much closer together than had been prac- 
tised by me, provided the cultivation was level, and very superficial. 

On the 23rd of April, 1814, 1 planted a patch with maize, leaving 
intervals of six feet between the rows, dropping the seed in clusters 
eighteen inches asunder in the furrows formed for planting, suffer- 
ing but two plants to grow in each cluster. On the 7th of May, the 
corn plant being then about three inches high, one row of white 
kidney bunch beans was planted in each interval between the rows 
of maize. Tlie furrows for planting the beans were formed about 
three inches deep, and four were dropped in clusters, nine inches 
apart in the rows. 



262 

Lest the planting should fail, the soil was scraped oft' from a 
small spot of rich, loose ground, adjoining the patch, about two 
inches deep, and spread with beans closely laid together ; these 
were covered over with the mould which had been scraped off; so 
soon as they were to be seen above the ground, a shovel was inserted 
under their roots ; the plants thus taken up were carefully separated, 
and placed in a basket to fill up the deficiencies in the patch; no 
addition was made, where two plants stood, nor any pulled up, 
where the four beans originally planted had prospered ; conse- 
quently the replanting was confined to where only one plant sto'od, 
or none of the seed had vegetated. Observation seemed to deter- 
mine, that four plants were too many to stand in a cluster, and 
that they would have been generally more vigorous, if but two had 
been suffered to remain in each of them ; but as this was my first 
and last experiment with beans, I cannot determine how many 
plants ought to have been introduced ; therefore advise the culti- 
vator, carefully to ascertain the proper number that should stand in 
the length of one perch in the row ; also, whether drilling would not 
answer equally as well as clusters ; for where obstacles do not ob- 
tain, this practice is much less expensive than dropping the seed 
by the hand. ♦ 

It was ordered, when the beans were replanted, to put them care- 
fully into the ground, up to where the seed splits, and forms its two 
first leaves; this was generally well done, still in some instances, 
but little more than the roots of the plant were covered ; those plants 
dwindled, and produced but little fruit, while all which were pro- 
perly transplanted, prospered as well as the rest of the crop ; al- 
though some of them were placed beside those established from the 
original planting. 

Thus it appears, that beans will bear transplanting far better than 
maize, for no good, but much injury generally occurs from replant- 
ing, or transplanting the latter, beside a plant or plants already 
established ; these new comers, oppressed by their more powerful 
neighbours, seldom ear well, and frequently produce no fruit, con- 
sequently become useless exhausters, and in return, oppress the 
older and more powerful plants, which causes the latter to be less 
productive. 

I have often transplanted and replanted corn, and to but little pur- 
pose, except when the original planting was early, and the vacancies 
in the rows long, or the right angles, if planted in that way, wide 
apart, and the corn for replanting, managed in the same way, 
as the beans were prepared for that purpose ; with this difference, 
it should be taken up so soon as it germinates, taking great care 
not to injure the sprouts, either in removing, or planting the seed ; 
the covering, not more than one inch thick, ought to be lightly spread 
over the seed, and the tapping with the hoe omitted ; it will be, how- 
ever, generally found better to supply these deficiencies by a few 
bunch beans, or potato sets spread in a small circle at some small 
distance apart, and placed at a proper depth in the soil. 



263 

Frequent cultivation had eradicated the grasses from the ground 
where this mixed crop was grown. Corn had been annually planted 
on the greater part of it for eight or nine years, and of late, without 
manure ; the first crop seen by me on it was tolerable, but that 
which immediately preceded the one planted by me, was injured 
so much by poverty of soil, and bad cultivation, that many of the 
plants did not get more than from three to four feet high, and were 
incapable of producing even valuable nubbins. 

The ground was moderately manured, with long fresh dung, pre- 
viously to ploughing; the cultivation of the plants was level, and 
very shallow, this formed a thin covering of loose, pulverised soil 
on the surface, which filled up the cracks in the ground, and to a 
considerable extent, prevented the injurious influence of drying 
winds, and the heat of the sun ; this greatly favoured the fermen- 
tation of the manure, and also prevented much of its rich volatile 
particles from escaping. 

The ears of corn were generally as large as any which had been 
before grown by me, except in some parts of the patch, where, from 
the inattention of those who hauled and spread the dung, the ground 
had not been so well manured. On those spots, the corn plants be- 
came sallow, so soon as the tap roots, tassels, and ear shoots ap- 
peared. The ears on these places were less, and did not fill out 
so well to their points, as the rest of the crop; which always hap- 
pens at this trying crisis, when a sufficiency of nutriment has not 
been provided for the plants. 

Rather before the corn plant should have been cut ofFby the roots, 
my working people were removed to another farm. This induced 
me to pull off the ears in the husk and spread them in the buildings to 
dry, rather than encounter the depredation which might occur from 
leaving the corn unprotected. The crop was not measured. It was, 
however, clearly seen, that it sustained a great loss from being 

ulled off too soon, notwithstanding the ears were cured in the 
usk. The grain continued loose on the cob until the whole was 
used. This never happens when corn is not cut off too soon, or re- 
moved too early from the stalk. The grain, however, always shrinks 
after the corn is gathered, and becomes more or less loose on the 
cob ; these openings between the grains let in air to the cob, and 
also permit the moisture to escape more freely from it. This causes 
the grains to unite as closely together as they were before they be- 
gan to shrink, unless the plants have been too early cut off, or the 
ears too soon husked, or pulled off from the stalk, for the cob shrinks 
quite as much as does the grain grown o|^ i( ; consequently, an ear 
of corn is considerably longer when it is cribbed, than after it be- 
comes properly cured; especially if gourdseed forms the greater 
part of the variety; for the open texture of the grain of this corn, 
causes it to carry much moisture into the crib, unless the weather 
happens to be unusually dry, after the plants have been cut off, and 
set up into heaps. 

WheiT the leaves had generally fallen off from the bean plants. 



I 



264 

they were pulled up by the roots, and set up in very small heaps, 
between the rows of corn, with their roots uppermost. This ex- 
posed the thicker part of the stem, as well as the root, to the sun 
and air, also the pod, for it turns downward while perfecting its fruit. 

After being thus dried, they were threshed, and measured at the 
rate of full thirty bushels to the acre, allowing them to occupy half 
the patch. 

The soil, shaded by their close foliage, was open and mellow as 
it is possible to conceive, almost as readily removed by the foot as 
an ash heap. 

The bean crop appeared nearly, if not equally productive through- 
out, even where the corn suffered considerably from lack of nutri- 
ment. This proves that they require much less food than maize : 
consequently that they are a very lenient crop. 

As one corner of the field had been highly enriched, this proves 
they are at least as productive in very rich soils, as in those which 
have been only lightly manured. For although the leaves put on a 
darker green, where a hogpen had been long standing, the plants 
were quite as productive there, or perhaps more so than in the rest 
of the crop. 

This is opposed to the too general opinion that beans grow best 
on a thinish soil ; but is not less true on that account. I have seen 
many plants which would grow on soils that were too thin to grow 
those which required more nutriment. But I have never seen one 
that did not prosper better on a rich soil, until it was rooted out by 
more powerful plants. 

I am informed that if beans be hilled up while the dew is still on 
the plant, they mildew and become unproductive. As this would 
seem to be the most favourable time for ridging up plants, I am dis- 
posed to believe, that the real cause why beans are generally con- 
sidered an uncertain and unproductive crop, is, that they are too 
commcinly planted on a poor soil, and always either hilled or ritlged 
up ; and that poverty of soil, joined with the savage practice of hil- 
ling up this delicate plant, debilitate it so much, that unless the 
seasons are very favourable, it cannot be productive. * 

The foregoing experiment induces me to believe, that if beans 
were properly cultivated, they would not only be a very lenient, 
but also a very profitable preparatory crop, for wheat or any other 
small grain. 

It also seems probable, that they will grow luxuriantly, if the in- 
tervals be only twenty -seven inches wide. If so, a good grass lay 
with a full second cropof^rass turned under late in the fall, might 
readily produce at the rate of forty bushels to the acre, which, 
where dung is not plenty, would be a very valuable crop. It would 
nett the farmer quite as much, or perhaps more to the acre, than a 
good crop of wheat. It is a very lenient plant, also well calculated 
by its close shade to pulverise the soil, far better than it is possible to 
do it by the cultivation of a naked fallow : consequently the prepara- 
tion of the lay for any kind of small grain, would be at least equal to 



265 

any that could be readily formed by the application of no more enrich- 
ing manure. 

The cultivation of the bean crop will cost more than that of wheat. 
But boys or girls may readily harvest the former with despatch, 
without whiskey and the other extra expense which has been inju- 
diciously attached to the harvesting of small grain. Beans are also 
threshed with but little labour, are in demand for exportation, and 
sell quite as high as wlieat. They may be drilled in rows, or if it 
be found better, dropped in clusters, by the very cheap drill invent- 
ed by Mr. Bordley.* This may be soon made by any farmer who 
knows how to use the tools commonly kept on a farm. A leather 
bottom to the seed hopper like that used for the American drill 
plough, would be a great improvement to it. 

I consider the arrangement of my mixed crop of maize and beans 
much better than any other that has been practised by me. Two 
hundred bushels of shelled corn to the acre, (rating only the soil 
alhttred for the growth of it,) seems no more than should be expect- 
ed ; provided the manuring be sufficient, the cultivation good, and 
the yellow or white gourdseed corns are planted. If the small 
early flinty corn be grown, the quantity will be considerably less. 
This will , however, greatly depend on the arrangement of the plants. 
They are much less than the larger corns, also n^ore productive in 
ear shoots ; consequently, that arrangement will be best which is 
most favourable to the introduction of the greatest number of 
plants without manifest injury to the perfection of the ears. Much, 
may also be done towards increasing the product of these small 
early corns, by a judicious selection of the seed. Especial care, 
however, should be taken in doing this, to preserve, and, when prac- 
ticable, to increase its property of ripening early. 

It appears the product of the corn plant alone was increased by 
this mixed cropping, for when the ground allotted for the beans 
•was estimated, they yielded only thirty bushels to the acre. The 
same happens when potatoes or barley are grown properly between 
the rows of corn. If either be suffered to stand too close to the 
maize, the product of the latter is greatly injured. I have seen the 
ears on a row of corn very much injured by being planted not closer 
than within twelve inches of the outside row of a potato patch, al- 
though neither of the plants was ridged up, and the remainder of 
the corn patch was good. 

I have often seen buckwheat sown among maize, but never with- 
out manifest injury to the latter, until after my removal to Philips- 
burg. Here I have observed both productive when grown in this 
way, also followed by luxuriant spring wheat. The volunteer buck- 
wheat plants were generally destroyed by the frosts which happen 
in the early part of the spring. The corn was an early variety, and 
dunged in the hill, planted at right angles from five to'six feet asun- 
der. It may have escaped injury from the early and rapid growth of 

* For a description of this drill, sec his book on Husb. 
LI 



266 

thfe plants. The gathering of the crops, however, is complex, and 
ihe system of cropping rather severe. 

Some farmers in that part of New Jersey where sand greatly 
prevails, say, that by planting pompions among corn, the crop is 
greatly benefited by shade. If this should happen, when maize is 
planted at right angles of about five feet, it certainly cannot take 
place when it stands sufficiently close to produce a full crop. In all 
cases observed by me, the pompion not only injured the maize 
greatly by its extensive shade, but also from putting a stop to the 
cultivation of it far too soon, by the running of the vines. 

Beans, with long running vines, are often planted among corn. 
These entwine closely round the maize. This, together with the 
extensive shade formed by their leaves, greatly diminishes the 
product. 

Where the potato will readily sell for table use, it is the most 
profitable plant to form a mixed crop with maize. If only a tolera- 
bly productive variety be planted, the crop ought to produce at 
least three hundred bushels to the acre, rating half the soil, or the 
ground allotted for the growth of this plant. 

But the cultivator ought not to forget, that to obtain this product, 
also two hundred bushels of maize from two acres of land, the 
plants will require sufficient food : consequently, the ground must 
be well manured, and trench ploughed eight or nine inches deep. 
The potato sets should be planted immediately after the first culti- 
vation of the maize; especially in high latitudes, where the former 
is often greatly injured by frost, merely from planting it at or about 
the time it should be planted in warmer climates. The time of 
planting, however, often depends quite as much, or perhaps more, 
on whether the potato perfects its fruit early or late. If the seasons 
be equally moist, the later the potato is planted the better, provided 
it be not injured by frost. Still the cultivator should recollect, that 
the injury done by the too intense heat of the sun is not so destruc- 
tive as an early or unexpected frost. Likewise, that it often hap- 
pens that the early planted potatoes are especially favoured by the 
seasons, and more productive than the late, even when the latter 
has suffered no injury from frost. Also, that the shade formed by 
the corn plant will greatly defend the potatoes from the injurious 
effects of the sun. 



CHAPTER XXIIL 



Oil the cultiratlon of flax. Too little seed is sown. It is injured in new grounds 
by the shade formed by the trees. How the seed sown for this and other 
crops may be well coated with gypsum. 

JT LAX requires a rich soil, grows well after Indian corn, potatoes, 
or turnips. It is probable the same will happen if it be grown after 
any other fallow crop, provided the ground be rich, or has been pro- 
perly manured. It also prospers well on grounds recently cleared 
from their wood, except that the bark is sometimes injured from the 
shade of the adjacent trees. It should not, however, be sown oa 
such ground, until after the hard and undecayed vegetable sub- 
stances be well incorporated with the soil, and the weeds to which 
new grounds ai'e subject, destroyed by the cultivation of a fallow 
crop. 

When the land is rich or well manured, or has been recently 
cleared, it will be foundbest for small grain to follow the flax, and 
grass seed sown on it. When the grasses are sown on this plant, 
they are greatly mangled, and many of them pulled up by the roots 
when the flax is harvested. 

Luxuriant crops of flax have been grown on grass lays without 
manure. Therefore, when farm yard manure cannot be applied, a 
good grass lay, with a full second crop of grass, may be turned un- 
der for the growth of this plant. But, as weeds and grass are very 
injurious to it, the soil should be cultivated previously to sowing 
the seed, in the same way as has been recommended for sowing 
small grain on a grass lay in the spring. Small grain may be sown 
after the flax, and grass seed should be sown on it.* 

If gypsum can be had, the seed for both crops should be well 
coated with it. When water only is used for wetting the seed, too 
little of this substance seems to adhere to many of them, and num- 
bers are nearly stripped of it in the process of sowing. Although 
that which falls off from the grain in sowing is incorporated with 
the soil, it does not seem to be as useful as if it remained in con- 
tact with the seed, for reasons which have been assigned. 

There are many glutinous or clammy substances by which seed 
might be moistened, (some with and others without the aid of wa- 
ter,) and such as are in themselves nutritive; also inclining to be 

* Flax is considered an exhausting plant, consequently it would be a far safer 
practice to grow it on a grass lay well manured and properly prepared. In this 
case it woiUd commence a course or round of crops as is recommended for 
hemp. 



268 

t 

softened by the moisture in the soil, or by no means disposed t« 
oppose or bind vegetation, as does tar v;lien the seed of maize is 
coated with it. Some one or more of these, that may happen to be 
least expensive, or most readily obtained, should be used when 
seeds are rolled in gypsum. 

In England, two bushels of the best flaxseed are sown to the acre, 
and when the seed is considered not so good as it ought to be, three 
bushels are sown. 

In this country, one bushel is generally considered sufficient to 
the acre. This, however, cannot be enough, although but few fine 
linens are made here. 

Therefore, notwithstanding I do not profess to be sufficiently ac- 
quainted with the properties of this plant to dictate the quantity of 
seed which should be sown to the acre, I advise the cultivator to 
consider that the branching of these plants will be less when they 
stand thick enough on the ground, and that the flax is greatly in- 
jured by branching out into limbs, in place of producing long well 
formed stems. Also, that the growth of weeds is by far less encou- 
raged when the plants stand sufficiently thick on the ground. 

This plant is not readily injured by frost, and the prosperity of the 
crop depends so much on early seeding, that the fiirmer who prefers 
his interest to the erroneous practice of waiting until the ground 
be wfirmed, will act wisely if he sows early. 

If weeds appear in the crop, they should be carefully removed 
by the hand before the plants have grown so high that they will not 
rise up after being pressed down by the feet of the weeders, who 
should not be suftered to enter the patch with shoes on their feet. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

On the cultivation of Hemp. 

1 AM still less acquainted with hemp than with flax. But there is 
a practice in the cultivation of this plant, which [ know to be wron"-. 
That is, many farmers have their perpetual hemp patches. These 
are annually cultivated, and as the plant requires a rich soil, manure 
is frequently applied. 

This makes the patch, in proportion to its size, stand much in. 
the same relation to the farm, as a Maryland tobacco patch formerly 
did. As the latter has been one of the principal causes of greatly 
exhausting the soil in many parts of that state, I would advise those 
who keep perpetual hemp patches, to alter this irrational practice. 

Where this valuable plant is grown, it should form part of a 
course of crops, so that the grasses may properly intervene. I am 
well informed that it grows luxuriantly on grass lays ; consequently, 
an alteration in the cultivation of it, may be readily, as well as' 
profitably effected. 

Notwithstanding the shade formed by this plant destroys many 
weeds, the lay should be well prepared for the growth of it, in the 
way that has been recommended for small grain sown in the spring. 
Manure will be necessary, unless the grounds be rich and deep, as 
the plant is powerful as well as large, and seems to return but little 
back to the soil. Still, in place of the manures being very fre- 
quently applied, once for each round of crops will be found suffi- 
cient. A much more considerable breadth of soil than the scanty 
limits of a perpetual hemp patch, will be enriched by the same 
quantity of dung, which, by being improperly used, had been ex- 
posed to much useless waste. 



BOOK III. 
ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

observations on the quantity of wheat that should be sown to the acre ; ajso, 
on the proper time of sowing- it. How any material injury from the Hessian 
fly may be g-enerally avoided. Remarks on the generally prevailing opinion 
that the wheat plant is smothered by snow. Observations on drilling wheat ; 
also, on spring wheat. 

V ULL two bushels of wheat should be sown to the acre, if put in 
as early as the depredation committed by the Hessian fly will ad- 
mit. If sown later, the quantity ought to be increased in propor- 
tion as the season advances, up to not less than three bushels to the 
acre, if sown very late. As the season advances, the soil becomes 
less capable of promoting vegetation, and the seed perishes in due 
proportion. 

Very young and tender plants cannot withstand the vicissitudes 
of inclement seasons near so well as those that are more firmly es- 
tablished; and many of them perish of course. I'he plants that 
survive do not tiller near so much as those grown from seed which 
has been early sown. 

Local causes, as well as latitude, alter climate so much that no 
certain time can be fixed on for seeding, so as to suit in every part 
of our extensive country. In general, however, wheat may be safely 
sown just before, or immediately after, sufficient white frost ap- 
pears either to kill, or greatly cripple, the Hessian fly. Still, it 
sometimes happens that white frost is not, as usual, succeeded by 
other frosts until the Hessian fly has recovered from the injury in- 
flicted on it by the first frost, or frosts. In that case, great mischief 
is sometimes done by this destructive insect. This is, however, an 
evil which cannot be avoided, without generally seeding too late, 
and as it seldom occurs, is not so much to be dreaded. 

Before the appearance of the Hessian fly, wheat was often sown 
too early. Many had to turn in cattle to eat it down, or it would 
have jointed in the fall. This practice uselessly exhausted the soil, 
by feeding the plants on it longer than is necessary.* The cattle, 
destroy the crown of the plants, leaving the lateral and less pro- 
ductive shoots for growing the crop. They also pull up many of the 
plants by the roots, and trample others into the ground. This forms 
holes in which the water lodges, and the grains, with the young 
grass plants growing in them, are destroyed by frost. 

When wheat is not sown until danger from the Hessian fly has 

• Nothing is gained by this. The long extensive leaves, &c. grown in the 
fall are commonly so much injured by frost in the winter and early part of 
spring, that thev fall off, and new ones ai-e to be formed. 

M m 



274 

passed by, the soil is not consolidated by time, more than is neces- 
sary for the growth of the crop. A long and useless continuation 
of the plants on the soil in the fall, renders it less capable of afford- 
ing sufficient nutriment for them, when they are perfecting the 
grain ; which is of all others, the most trying crisis. Too early 
sowing also encourages the growth of hardy weeds. These being 
firmly established in the fall, too often take the lead in the spring, 
and greatly injure the crop. 

It appears to be generally believed, that late seeding favours mil- 
dew, and observation seems to confirm this opinion. I never sow 
wheat, however, until it is supposed that risk of material injury fiora 
the Hessian fly has passed by : yet I have observed that my crops 
have suffered more injury from mildew, than those put earlier into 
the ground. As popular opinion on subjects which are not well un- 
derstood, may be either right or wrong, I am not disposed to give up 
the evident advantages derived from sowing later than others, until 
I am better informed : particularly as it clearly appears that defi- 
ciency of seed, frequently united with a soil too thin to mature a 
profitable crop of wheat, is sufficient to injure the product of this 
plant, to a great extent; especially when it happens to be sown very 
late. There is, however, a very great difference between sowing 
so late, that the plough and harrow are frequently stopped by hard 
frost, before the farmer gets in all his seed, and that of sowing as 
soon as material risk of injury from the Hessian fly, has passed by. 
The first mentioned practice is evidently wrong. The last may be, 
for aught we know to the contrary, be exactly right: even if well 
tried practice had not clearly determined, that wheat cannot be 
sown sooner, without risking ruinous injury from the insect.* 

In this State alone, latitude and local causes alter the climate so 
much that the plough and harrow are stopped by hard frost, at least 
two weeks sooner, in some situations, than in others. Yet, I find 
the farmers where I now reside, fix on the same time for seed- 
ing, that was considered proper by the cultivators in the neigh- 
bourhood where I formerly lived. Both cannot be right, as the 
plough is stopped by hard frost here, from ten days to two v^eeks 
sooner than the same generally occurs there. 

The quantity of seed recommended by me, is as contrary to the 
opinions of farmers in general, as it also is to Mr. Bordley's book 
on Husbandry. He says that " wheat sown in England, from two 
to three bushels to the acre, yields great crops; that two bushels 
to the acre, sown in Pennsylvania or Maryland, would yield straw 
without grain." 

Mr. Bordley certainly never did investigate the subject, or he 
■would have known better. I have long been in the habit of sowing 
two bushels to the acre, and have generally gathered far better 
crops than my neighbours who sowed less. 

The surface of a field of very early sown wheat, commonly presents a russet 
and deadljke apjjearance in the spring, while that sown later, but not too late, 
looks green and vigorous. 



275 

It so happened once, that by mistaking the measurement, of a 
small field, much more was sown on it. It yielded considerably 
more grain, and much stouter straw than some other wheat, sowa 
at the rate of two bushels to the acre, the same season, and a little 
earlier. Every person who saw the little patch of thick sown wheat^ 
said it looked beautiful, but that it stood vastly too thick on the soil ; 
that the straw would spindle, and fall to the ground. The result, 
however, was immediately opposed to this. The straw of the thickly 
sown wheat, was preferred for thatching my barracks, by an Irish- 
man who had been accustomed to that business in his own country. 

Since I removed to Philipsburg, I sowed in the fall of 1814, a 
patch of wheat, at the rate of two bushels to the acre, and intended 
to sow another patch at the same rate. It, however, so happened, 
that the seedsman who sowed the last, got bewildered in conse- 
quence of being accustomed to sow only one bushel to the acre, and 
the patch was sown at the rate of nearly four bushels per acre. 

Both fields promised large crops, until.the plants were sadly af- 
fected by mildew, which prevailed that year very generally, so far 
as my observation and information exteaioed. Neither of the patches 
yielded more than half a crop, bu\ the thickly sown, produced the 
most and best grain. This may have?+iappened from its standing 
on high ground, or from the stems growing on a greater number of 
original roots, for the plants tilled iesfe than the patch which had 
been thinner sown. 

Mr. Hordley, in his book on Husbandry, intimates, that the soil 
and climate of England are calculated to grow better crops of wheat, 
than can be grown in this country. With respect to soil, it may 
be justly observed, that we have both as good, and as bad as is to 
be found in other countries. Our climate, however, seems to be 
better calculated to ripen heavy crops of wheat, than the climate of 
England. We have generally a clear sky and genial sun. In that 
country, cloudy, dripping, foggy weather, joined with the weak ef- 
fect of a distant sun, often proves fatal to the ripening of wheat 
crops. We are also told by nursery men, who have practised their 
profession in both countries, that plants of the same description, 
will grow nearly a much in one year here, as they commonly grow 
there in two. This seems to prove that our climatei |S better for 
vegetation, and that the soil must be at least equal to that of Eng- 
land. ' . 

That Englishmen generally cultivate wheat, and almost every 
other plant, much better than they are commonly cultivated here» 
we ought to acknowledge with shame ; they also generally improve 
their soil, and we but too commonly impoverish ours ; these things 
are, no question, worthy of praise, and thus far, we should follow 
their laudable example. Grain and grass seed are also sown much 
thicker in that country than here, and in this. Englishmen act wise- 
ly. When these subjects have been wisely considered, and appre- 
ciated in this country, we shall do the same, and, where useless, 
and very injurious weeds, now occupy the unnecessary space, lefi- 



276 

between the plants, valuable vegetation will appear. Good cultiva- 
tion and management, will certainly place our field, on at least ah 
equal footing with those of England. Then, but not until then, it 
will be clearly seen by all, that the climate of this country is very 
superior to that of England, for the growth of plants generally, and 
that the soil is at least equal. 

It would seem that the first cause of sowing seed too sparingly, 
in this country, is developed in our recent settlements, made in the 
back-woods. It too often happens, that when these settlements are 
first commenced, a scarcity, not only of seed, but also of food pre- 
vails. It has been such, as to induce some cultivators, to take up 
and eat their potatoe sets after they had been planted. This seems 
to have determined them, to spread their seeds very thinly over the 
soil, to increase the product of each one of them as much as possible. 

No question but a much greater scarcity of seed and food pre- 
vailed among the first European settlers of America, as they were 
often in a starving condition ; this would naturally induce them to 
sow and plant very thinly; profuse tillering was the natural conse- 
quence in a virgin soil, particularly, when the wheat was sown 
early. 

Before the Hessian fly appeared, many of the farmers on the 
eastern shore of Maryland, commenced sowing wheat, about the 20tli 
of August ; this was very early for that climate ; such, however, was 
the practice, and frequently with not more, and sometimes less, 
than three pecks to the acre. It would seem from this, and various 
other circumstances, that a false economy induced the first settlers, 
to continue the practice of sowing by far too little seed, although it 
■was immediately opposed to the practice of the country from which 
they had emigrated. 

They, no question, at first believed this profuse vegetation, origi- 
nated in the superior soil and climate of the country they had 
adopted; this seems also to have led them to believe, that where 
nature had made such ample provision for the growth of plants, but 
little attention to manure was necessary, until their crops were re- 
duced by impoverishing the soil ; this of course altered their opi- 
nion^ but it would seem, as too commonly happens, lead them into 
an error still more fatal; namely, that the soil and climate in this 
country, were incapable of producing such luxuriant crops as were 
generally grown in England. 

Be this, however, as it may, the opinion has very generally prevail- 
ed, although nothing can well be more repugnant to common sense 
and observation, and the cultivation of wheat, with not more than 
one bushel sown to the acre, has continued to prevail. This was too 
generally sown on an exhausted soil, without manure, until the 
Hessian fly appeared. A little before the appearance of this insect, 
the average crop of wheat, on the eastern shore of Maryland, was 
estimated at about six bushels to the acre, and that of Pennsylvania, 
where more attention had been given to grass and cattle, at about 
ten bushels per acre. 



277 

This apparently insignificant insect, however, compelled late seed- 
ing, which, together with the poverty (tf the soil, greatly lessened the 
number of wheat plants, and the stems produced by tillering ; these 
causes compelled farmers, either to abandon the cultivation of 
wheat, or to manure their grounds; many preferred the latter, and 
the beneficial consequences arising from this supposed calamity have 
been clearly evinced ; one corner of many a field which had been 
exhausted by perpetual ploughing and cropping, without proper at- 
tention to grass and manure, now produces more than the whole of 
it formerly did, and with much less labour and expense. In this 
case, it is very observable, that rational industry, has sometimes the 
power of converting evil into good. 

Farmers might have long since seen, that one bushel of wheat 
sown after the depredations done by the Hessian fly ceased, would 
not, if seasons good and bad, and the different periods at which it 
must be sown be averaged, produce near so many plants, as a bushel 
sown much earlier. That many of those plants would perish, du- 
ring the inclement weather, in the fall, winter, and spring, and that 
those which survived, would tiller but little, especially in a thin 
soil: consequently, could not produce near so many stems, or ears, 
as the same quantity sowed much earlier. 

Now if those facts had been duly considered, they would have 
long since seen the propriety of increasing the quantity of seed, so 
as it should, at least, introduce as many ears or heads, as were for- 
merly introduced by early seeding. 

If they had investigated this highly interesting subject still fur- 
ther, reason and obversation would have informed them, that the 
same number of ears, supported and nourished by a greater number 
of original roots, must be capable of producing much more, and bet- 
ter grain, than it is possible for the same number of ears to produce, 
which are supported and nourished by a much less number of roots 
of the same description. 

As the thicker sowing, introduces many more original roots than 
thinner sowing, it must be more productive, even when only the 
same number of stems and ears are produced by both modes of 
seeding. Thick sowing, acts somewhat like suckering ; it reduces 
the number of stems from each plant, and if the grain be sown late, 
as well as thick, the plants of course, tiller still less, 'and unless the 
crop be sown so late as to favour mildew, more than wheat sowa 
very early, it will certainly yield more, and better grain. 

To illustrate this, I might refer to a number of Ifruit bearing til- 
lering plants ; it may, however, be sufficient to observe, that most 
good farmers sucker maize, and those who are in the habit of doing 
this, know full well, that three stalks grown in one cluster from 
three grains, will yield far more and better grain, than three stalks 
grown in the same way from but one grain. 

If wheat could be suckered to one original stem, grown from its 
own grain, without introducing too much labour, the crops would 
exceed credibility, if seed enough were sown to produce a sufficient. 



278 

number of plants. The stems produced by tillering, form roots, 
but like all other roots forftted by suckers, they are not, neither 
will they become so perfect, while they remain attached to the pa- 
rent plant ; like young animals, they more or less depend on it for 
their support, and like them, prove powerful exhausters, until they 
are separated from it; this is clearly seen in our orchards, in fact it 
may be seen, by the attentive observer, wherever vegetation exists ; 
here again, the analogy between plants and animals is very conspi- 
cuous : but to return, the parent plant, and its offspring, are, when 
wheat is sown thin and very early, closely matted together, and 
confined in one tussock : consequently, are far less capable of ga- 
thering nutriment, from the soil, than the same number of original 
roots which are regularly spread through it. 

Wheat cannot be sown in any way so as generally to suppress 
tillering : if sowing, however, be deferred, until material injury from 
the Hessian fly is not to be expected, and seed enough to be sown, 
tillering is greatly suppressed. 

There is certainly no natural cause which should deter us from 
sowing wheat, and other grain or grass seeds, full as thick as they 
are sown in England. As agriculture has been more highly im- 
proved in that country, than most other parts of the world, and nu-- 
merous experiments have been made by gentlemen of superior farm- 
ing abilities, to ascertain the proper quantity of seed which should 
be sown, and they, as well as the plain practical farmers residing 
there, find that too much seed is not sown, why should we hesitate 
to give this interesting practice a fair trial ? especially, as those 
who have sown liberally, in this country, are fully persuaded, from 
comparing their present, with their former crops, and also, by com- 
paring crops with their neighbours, who sow less seed, that plentiful 
seeding is by far the most productive practice. 

Very many millions of bushels of grain have been lost to the 
United States by pursuing a different method ; some gentlemen iiT 
England promised the nation a great saving in seed, from using 
the drill plough : however, after this instrument had been longer, 
and more generally used, it was clearly determined, that very little, 
if any, seed could be saved by it, without'more injury to the product 
of the crops than the value of the grain saved by sowing thinner. 
If that invaluable instrument, by which seed may be so correctly 
sown, and the plants well cultivated, has been found incapable of 
reducing to any considerable extent, the quantity of seed sown to 
the acre in Britain, we have still stronger reasons to believe, that 
too much has not been generally sov/n broadcast in that country. 

Here, however. I beg leave to observe, that notwithstanding it 
seems probable, Mr. Tull's intervals were generally too wide to 
grow a very large crop of wheat, and that sowing in double row 
was not calculated to counteract that error to any very consider- 
able extent, still there is reason to believe, that the improvers on 
his system have gone into the contrary extreme ; that much wider 
intervals than is at present practised, would grow more productive 



279 

crops than have yet been obtained ; that much seed might be saved 
by this system of management, and a#H;he same time, a sufficiency 
introduced in the rows, to suppress a profuse and injurious tillering 
of the plants; provided the practice of double hedge-row sow?bg 
be avoided ; this mode of sowing and planting, may be very greatly 
multiplied on paper ; it, however, multiplied but little, whenreduced 
to practice in our field, and most generally is very injurious to the 
crops. 

The roots and tops of plants require space in proportion to their 
size and other properties. When arranged in single rows, or at 
right angles, in that way which gives their roots and tops every pos- 
sible advantage consistent with a sufficiency of plants to grow a 
large crop, they will be more productive than when grown in any 
other way. The wheat may be sown in single rows, no wider apart 
than to admit a small horse to walk between them without injuring 
the plants materially. The intervals may be either increased or de- 
creased in width, as may, from experience, appear best calculated 
to favour the experiment. The cultivation should be level, and very 
superficial, and, in intervals of this width, may be so perfect that 
wheat maybe sown and cultivated on a speargrass lay, well turned 
and prepared, with but little more labour than on a clover lay. 

I had never seen spring wheat grown before the year 1815. It 
was then sown by Dr. Dewees and Mr. Philips, at the rate of full 
two bushels to the acre. The crop was luxuriant, and the heads 
large and well filled. The field on which it grew adjoined the 
Mushanon •creek, was level as well as low, and a part of it consi- 
dered too retentive for wheat. These circumstances, added to its 
ripening but little sooner than oats, seemed to favour mildew; es- 
pecially as the wheat sown the preceding fall was greatly injured by 
that disease. 

The result of this crop accidentally determines that some varieties 
of spring wheat are vastly more susceptible of injury from mildew 
than others.* The farmer who was sent about one hundred miles 
west of this place, to procure the seed, was informed, when he ar- 
rived in the neighbourhood where the spring wheat was grown, that 
there were two varieties of it, and that the bearded was subject to 
mildew when the smooth-chaff escaped this disease. He, of course, 
determined to procure the latter. It, however, so happened when 
the wheat shot out into ear, that a slight mixture of the bearded ap- 
peared in every direction through the field. Every plant of this 
description was excessively injured by mildew, while the smooth- 
chaft" growing in contact with it escaped. 

This spring wheat seems to be equally as subject to smut as wheat 
sown in the fall. That disease generally prevailed in the year 1817, 
in the back-woods settlements, as far as my information extended ; 
but not so as to do very great injury in this neighbourhood, except 

* It is probable that if the subject were properly investig-ated, the same dif- 
lencp would b« i'ona'l to exist iiv wheat sown in the fall, 



^ 280 

in a few fields. In this case, the spring wheat appeared to be quite 
as much affected by smut as^vas that sown in the fall. 

The bread made with the flour of the spring wheat grown here, 
is Cot as white as that obtained from wheat sown in the fall. The 
colour, however, is not dark and ill looking, like the bread made of 
lye flour. On the contrary, the slight yellow tinge of the bread 
made with the flour from our spring wheat, communicates a rich 
appearance, which seems to compensate fully for its not being so 
purely white. 

My family, neighbours, and myself, prefer the bread made of the 
flour of the spring wheat. We believe it has an agreeable flavour, 
■which, though it may be readily tasted, cannot be described so as 
to be well understood. We say it is sweeter than other bread ; 
that is, it is more agreeable to us ; but this is by no means descrip- 
tive of the pleasant taste of it. 

It is probable that the slight yellow tinge of the bread made with 
the flour of this wheat, will make it less valuable for exportation. 
It will, however, be found invaluable to those who reside in high 
latitudes. By cultivating it, the risk of injury from winter's frosts, 
&c. is avoided : so is, also, any extensive damage from the Hessian 
jly. As it has once escaped mildew when fall wheat was generally 
greatly injured by this disease, the same may again, or, perhaps, 
generally happen.* It may be cultivated with less labour, as much 
less water furrowing will do for it than for fall grain. The variety 
grown here is full as productive as any wheat known to me. The 
skin of the grain is thin. It yields quite as much flour to the 
bushel as fall wheat. Some say it yields more. I very much doubt, 
however, whether the product will be so great, or the flour as good, 
Avhen this wheat is sown in warmer and drier climates. It is cer- 
tain that the grain of oats sown here, is larger and better, and the 
product greater, than is obtained from this plant in the warmer and 
drier climates below us. 

Spring wheat has been cultivated only three years here ; it is, 
however, evident that it prospers best when sown as early as frost 
will permit it to be done : also, that two bushels to the acre is not 
too much seed ; but it remains doubtful whether more seed would 
or would not increase the product. 

The farmers in the back parts of Pennsylvania, say wheat is 
smothered by snow : especially when a crust is formed over the lat- 
ter by hail or sleet. They also tell us, that if cattle be driven 
through the field, so as to break the crust into pieces, the air is let 
in and the plants are not injured. This may be correct. No ob- 
servation of mine, however, confirms the theory. 

Snow seems to prevent the escape of much heat from the earth, 

• As other spring' wheat grown in contact with it was ruined by mildew, it 
clearly appears that the cause which produces this disease existed in as full 
force as it did earlier iu the season, when the fall wheat was very mucli injured 
by It 



281 

und a compact covering, formed by frozen hail or sleet, may mor« 
effectually confine it. It, however, seems doubtful whether enough 
of heat could be gathered and confinfed in this way, under the 
snow, to produce a sufficient fermentation to destroy the plants. 
But be this as it may, it is very obvious that as soon as the snow 
melts off the ground in the spring, the wheat plants often dwindle, 
and a considerable proportion of them are quickly destroyed. 

As the farmers confidently assert that this injury is much greater 
when hail or sleet closely covers the snow, it is difficult to suppose 
they could be readily mistaken in this part of their theory : yet 
they are very often greatly mistaken in things which it would seenx 
might be more readily understood. It is also worthy of remark, 
that the thick and solid ice often formed on watered meadow, is 
generally believed to preserve the tops and roots of the grasses 
under it. 

It is likewise certain, that when wheat is sown in high latitudes, 
on a soil recently cleared from its wood, the crops are seldom in- 
jured during winter, or early in the spring; except in such hollows 
in the field as may happen to gather and retain the water falling on 
it. The cause of this is so evident that it cannot be con^overted. 
First, the open texture of those soils formed by the vegetable mat- 
ters not yet sunk into decay, filters off the superfluous moisture. 
Secondly, the rich animal and vegetable matters contained in the 
virgin soil, cause the plants to become healthy and vigorous : of 
consequence, they are far better calculated to withstand the vicis- 
situdes of inclement seasons. 

Now, if the plants be smothered by snow, or a combination of it 
with hail and sleet, I cannot see why they so generally escape on 
the new grounds, while they perish on those that have been longer 
cultivated : more especially, as I observe the injury is much the 
greatest where long continued and severe cropping, without atten- 
tion to grass or manure, has not only reduced the large body of 
partly decayed vegetable substances, which abounded in the soil 
when it was first cleared from its wood, but also reduced the ani- 
mal and vegetable matter so much that the ground, soon after it was 
ploughed, became a compact mass, unless a very considerable pro- 
portion of it was sand. In the latter case, the texture does not be- 
come compact, but being stripped of animal and vegetable matter, 
it remains equally inert and incapable of furnishing sufficient food 
for plants. 

In every climate where I have been, a large number of wheat 
plants perish during inclement weather, from poverty of soil alone : 
particularly during the freezing nights and thawing days which 
generally take place in the latter part of winter, and early in the 
spring. 

In the lower parts of this State, farmers believe that plentiful 
snows preserve the vigour of the wheat plant, and enable it the 
better to withstand the severe trials it has to encounter in the Ut- 
ter part of winter, and early in the spring. 

N n 



282 

Many wheat plants perish in retentive sdils, which contain a 
sufficiency of animal and vegetable matters, when due attention has 
not been given to ridging and water furrowing them properly. This, 
also, very frequently occurs in England, which Mr. Bordley, and 
too many of our farmers, have considered much better than this 
country, for the growth of wheat. This evil, however, does not so 
commonly occur there, as it does here. Englishmen frequently 
spend more money in under draining retentive soils, than would 
purchase the fee simple, in the same number of acres of the richest 
and best land in our back country, with a log dv/elling house and 
barn, and many acres of cleared ground included in the survey. It 
is true, the greater part of this labour might be generally avoided, 
and the crops rendered still more valuable, by forming under drains 
with the furrow slices, and the tops of the grasses turned under the 
soil, when the grounds were turned up for fallow crops. But their 
injudicious attachment to old grass grounds, has excluded a proper 
system of convertible husbandry. 

From what has been advanced, we may rationally infer, that if 
farmers in high latitudes, would keep their grounds well stored with 
animal and vegetable substances, and pursue a proper system of 
husbandry, we should hear but little complaint of grain crops being 
smothered by snow, &c. Notwithstanding, a sufficiency of nutri- 
ment for the plants, and proper ridging or water furrowing are in- 
dispensable in every climate where I have been, the injury arising 
from the neglect of them, is vastly greater in high latitudes. So 
much so, that I am fully persuaded the growth of viinter wheat has 
been abandoned, or nearly so, in many of the long formed and very 
populous settlements in this country, where it might have been, and 
yet may be grown, with extensive success. Where good grasses 
and cattle abound, winter wheat may also abound, if the soil be 
sufficiently enriched, and proper provision be made to run off that 
superfluity of moisture, which generally prevails in high latitudes ; 
and which induces farmers, who have not sufficiently investigated 
tiiis very interesting subject, to assert that such settlements are 
excellent for grass or grazing, but very unfit and improper for 
wheat, more especially for that sown in the fall. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Remarks on the cultivation of rye. Also, on its not being so hardy a plant ac 
ifrheat. It is subject to much fewer diseases than wheat. Observations on 
spring rye. 

XVYE requires full as much seed to the acre as wheat. It also til- 
lers in proportion to the time it is sown : therefore, the quantity of 
seed should be increased as the season advances. As it is seldom, 
ifever, injured by the Hessian fly, it may be early sown. Yet it would 
appear, from the best information I have been able to gather, that 
the earliest sown winter grain is injured the most by the cause (be 
it what it may,) which produces the effect that farmers term " smoth- 
ered by snow." How this happens, is a difficult question, as the 
increased size, and deeper rooting of the plants, appear calculated 
to increase the vigour of them. It seems to favour the idea, that the 
profuse vegetation promotes a more powerful fermentation.* I have, 
however, never heard any person attribute the destruction of the 
plants to this cause. 

Rye is not so valuable as wheat, but in some cases, may be more 
profitably grown. The cultivation for it ought to be quite as good 
as for the latter grain. 

It has been found very productive, when grown on a good soil, 
well cultivated, and merits much better treatment than it generally 
obtains. Farmers have discovered, that it is capable of contending 
with bad cultivation, and an impoverished soil, and seldom allot 
better for it: consequently, they too generally gather scanty crops. 

In England and some other parts of Europe, fatal consequences 
have occurred from eating the bread made with the flour of this 
grain. This is caused by a disease which takes place in the grain, 
Avhile growing in the field. The affected grains grow out in a form 
resembling horns, and become much larger and longer than those 
that are sound. These horns conta-n a mixture of black and white 
powder. When the disease is extensive, a sufficiency of this pow- 
der is mixed with the flour obtained from the uninjured grain, to 
destroy those who eat the bread made of it. 

Some people in this neighbourhood, gather the diseased grains, to 
poison flies. These affected grains, however, have never appeared 
here in sufficient number, to do any perceptible injury to the bread. 

So far as my observation and inquiry extend, rye suffers more 
than wheat, in the back parts of Pennsylvania, from being (as far- 
mers term it,) smothered by snow. This may arise, in part, from a 

• That is, if fermentation be the cause which pi'oduces the effect. 



284 

thinner soil and worse cultivation than is commonly used for the 
latter grain. The generally prevailing opinion, however, is, that 
rye is a much hardier plant than wheat. Still, it would seem that 
this supposed hardiness of rye, arises from its being better calcula- 
ted to live on less nutriment, and also to contend with a bad culti- 
vation. If both plants be well cultivated, on a soil sufficiently rich, 
and m other respects equally favourable to the growth of either of 
them, it will be found that the wheat is better calculated to with- 
stand the bad effects produced by inclement seasons, in the back 
parts of Pennsylvania. On what may happen elsewhere, I am not 
so well prepared to ha-tard an opinion. 

Rye is not subject to near so many diseases as wheat It is there- 
fore, a much more certain crop, provided it be equally as well cul- 
tivated, and on as good a soil. 

I have never seen spring rye, therefore cannot say any thing 
practically of it. It was sown last spring by a few farmers who re- 
side not far from Philipsburg. They speak highly of it, and say it 
is equally as productive as that sown in the fall. If their report be 
correct, it should be sown in preference to the latter, especially in 
high latitudes. ^ 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

On the ciiItiv»tion of barley, and the quantity of seed that ought to be sown 

to the acre. 

Barley, when sown in the spring as early as frost will permit it 
to be done, requires full three bushels to the acre. If later sown, the 
quantity should be increased as the season advances. It also tillers 
more or less, in proportion to the time it may happen to be sown. 

Most farmers sow but two bushels of this grain per acre, and I 
have never sown more than three bushels to the acre. I have, how- 
ever, seen four bushels sown to the acre. When the plants were, 
about four or five inches high, they seemed to be so very thick on the 
ground, that if the field had been mine, I would have dragged a great 
many of them up by the roots, with the tined harrow. This, however, 
■would have been wrong, as I do not recollect ever to have seen bar- 
ley grow stouter, or ear better. The owner of the field had been in 
England, and but a little while returned from that country, before 
the barley was sown. More than four bushels of barley is sown to 
the acre, by some cultivators in England. Still, I would advise 
the farmer not to sow more than three bushels to the acre, except on 
a small scale, until the subject is better understood. 

I believe winter barley will require more, or at least quite as much 
seed, as that sown in the spring ; but of this I know nothing prac- 
tically, having always sown in the spring. I would advise every 
farmer to do the same, as the risk of inclement seasons is avoided, 
by this practice. The soil being recently cultivated by putting in the 
crop with the hoe and tined harrows, is in a far better state to ma- 
ture the grain, than it would be after lying through the winter, 
and a part of the fall. Much fewer weeds are introduced, and the 
grass seed sown immediately after the cultivation, prospers much 
better. Much less water furrowing will suffice. This will save la- 
bour and furnish a surface better calculated for mowing the grasses, 
and inning them after they have been made into hay. These very 
obvious advantages are sufficient to induce the farmer to prefer 
sowing grain of every description in the spring, whenever the 
practice will be, in other respects, equally convenient and profita- 
ble to him. 

The barley with six rows of grain on each head, has been (he 
most productive in my practice. This plant, like most others, de 
lights in an open, free soil. Great crops of it have, however, been 
grown on very stiff, retentive clay, when the soil was rich, ridged 
up, and properly water furrowed. The grain of that grown in 
high latitudes, so far as my observation extends, is larger and 
heavier than that of the same variety, grown in the lower latitudes. 



CHAPTER XXVllI. 

On the cultivation of oat5. Barley may be more profitably cultivated than oats 
on rich soils, even for the purpose of feeding domesticated animals. On 
harvesting grain. 

Oats require full as much seed as barley, and the same increase 
in quantity as the season advances, for reasons which have been 
assigned. They are a productive crop in high latitudes. In such 
situations, the grain of some varieties becomes nearly as large and 
as heavy as the grain of barley grown in lower latitudes. Thus the 
grain of the oat grown in the glades, where the height of the 
ground causes the climate to be cold, is much celebrated for its 
size and weight. Seed procured from the glades, however, and 
sown in warmer climates, quickly degenerates, until it attains that 
size and weight which are consistent with the soil and climate to 
which it has been removed. After this, if it be in the hands of a 
judicious farmer, it will degenerate no further. On the contrary, 
if it be formed of mixed varieties, (as is too generally the case with 
the greater part of our seeds,) he will gradually improve this de- 
generated mass by growing or picking out the inferior kinds. This 
theory, sanctioned by the long and well tried practice of many ju- 
dicious cultivators, is equally applicable to every other kind of seed. 
It is not, however, so soon, and, of course, not so readily observed 
in some of them, as it is in the oat. 

Oats ought to be sown as early in the spring as the frost will per- 
mit. They are generally sown after a slight and very ineffectual 
cultivation. The soil should be as well prepared for them as 
for barley. If this is not done, very luxuriant crops cannot be ex- 
pected. The farmer should, however, consider that any soil, which 
is not very retentive of moisture, if it be sufficiently rich to pro- 
duce luxuriant crops of oats, is also capable of producing the same 
of bailey, if properly ordered. The latter, where it is in demand, 
?ells much higher than oats. It also weighs considerably heavier: 
therefore, is greatly superior for feeding domesticated animals. It 
is richer food than oats, but being also well covered with a chatFy 
husk, this, with its other properties, renders it equally proper for 
feeding stage or saddle horses. Barley is the common food for this 
unimal in tliose countries which produce the fleetest and best formed 
horses in the world. 

The only advantage which oats have over barley, is that they may 
be more perfectly grown in soils either too wet or too poor for the 
latter. The roots of the oats are better calculated to contend with 
poverty, and the plant is able to live on much less nutriment. It 



287 

can also better withstand a superabundance of moisture, and bad 
cultivation than barley. 

I have, however, seen oats greatly injured by a superabundance 
of moisture when growing on soils which might have been laid sxif- 
ficiently dry for that crop, if due attention had been given to water 
furrowing the ground properly. 

If the farmers in our back-woods settlements would grow barley 
on their better grounds, in place of oats, for feeding their live stock, 
it would be the sure and certain means of establishing many brewe- 
ries in a very short time. The present scarcity of them arises prin- 
cipally from the impracticability of procuring, in time, a sufficiency 
of barley to make the business even tolerably profitable until some 
very considerable time after the commencement of it. The es- 
tablishment of breweries would not only open a market for our pro^ 
duce, but also eventually cause much less whiskey to be drunk. 
The too free use of it seems to be the principal cause of most of 
the evils which prevail in new settlements. 

Custom has induced farmers generally to believe that it is an im- 
proper and wasteful practice to cut either wheat or rye with the 
scythe and cradle. If the grain be neither lodged nor entangled, 
it may be cut off as clean by the scythe and cradle as by die sickle. 
If it be properly gathered and bound, but little, if any, more loss 
will arise from gathering it in this way. If the grain be cradled 
in proper time, it shatters less, on the whole, than when it is reap- 
ed and secured in the usual way. It is readily granted that if grain 
be cradled and reaped at the same time, it shatters more by the for- 
mer practice. It should be recollected, however, that the very 
tardy progress of the sickle greatly increases the shattering, by pro- 
crastinating the harvest so long that the chaff opens, and much of 
the grain falls out. Whereas the rapid progress of the scythe and 
cradle cuts off the grain, before any material loss from shattering 
can take place, if the cultivator commences in time. No evil, but 
much good, will arise from beginning early. This not only prevents 
shatteiing, but also the risk of encountering the various injuries 
to which the crop is exposed by useless delay. Some farmers of 
the first respectability assert, that practice and observation have 
convinced them, that the grain, and also the flour, are best when 
wheat is cut much before the usual time. This, however, does not 
accord with my practice. The middle course, between the ex- 
tremes of cutting very early, or at the usual time, will be found the 
best : except when mildew occurs. In that case, wheat should be 
(^t immediately after it can be determined that the disease is se- 
vere. If the crop is only slightly affected, it is far better to let it 
stand until the grain be fit to cut. 

Many judicious and well attested experiments determine, that 
when wheat is badly injured by mildew, the grain gets no better, if 
it be suffered to stand. That if it be cut off immediately after the 
injury is seen, the grain actually derives very considerable advan- 
tage from the sap contained in the straw. 



288 

Bad cradlers, and bad reapers, destroy much grain : infinitely 
more, however, is lost by those who could perform either well, if 
harvest was not considered, as the holidays too generally are, a 
time for drinking to excess. This renders many incapable of doing 
any thing properly. Others, who are not quite so far gone, are dis- 
posed to run races a part of the day, and spend the rest of it iu 
drinking under the shade, or in quarreling and fighting. 

In fact, too many of the labouring part of the community are, at 
this season of the year, more like drunken savages than members 
of a civilized community. This evil does not spring either from 
benevolence or hospitality in their employers. Avarice seems to 
have been the first moving cause of this enormity. In direct oppo- 
sition to the laws of God and the reason of man, this contemptible, 
selfish principle, induced many to outbid their neighbours by a more 
plentiful supply of ardent spirits. 

If those farmers had known their own interest, or wished to pro- 
mote the interest and rational happiness of those employed by them, 
or to act as men professing Christianity should, or, indeed, as an 
infidel would act, if he were not blinded by a false estimate of self 
interest, this shocking practice would not have been introduced. 

Every farmer who wishes to promote the interest of agriculture, 
should set his face against it, and in lieu of whiskey, &c. pay an 
equivalent in money. I have never found it difficult to procure, 
either in the back-woods or elsewhere, as full a supply of workmen 
as my neighbours, who gave them as much ardent spirit as they 
would drink, although they got none of this from me. After the 
harvest was over, it was clearly seen, that the workmen were far 
better satisfied with receiving an equivalent in money, in place of 
injuring their health by drinking ardent spirits to the amount of it. 
It is not, however, in my practice only, that the beneficial effects of 
not allowing workmen either in harvest or at any other time, intox- 
icating liquors appear. There are many farmers in Pennsylvania, 
who would sooner suffer their grain to rot on the ground, than 
sanction this enormity. 

Now, it is very observable, that these men never suffer by this 
arrangement ; on the contrary, their fields are cleaner reaped, and 
with much less trouble and expense. Why then, is not this dis- 
graceful practice, of injuring the morals, health, reputation, and 
circumstances of neighbours abandoned ^ especially, as in doing 
this, we also injure ourselves. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

On- stubble crop grasses, and the management of them. On the properties of 
timothy, and on making it into hay. On the bad consequences arising from 
sowing too little grass seed. Observations on grazing and soiling ; also, on 
the effects produced by tlie salivation, occasioned by second and third crop 
red clover, both in soiling and pasture. Remarks on orchard, and oat 
grasses. 

1 WILL now make some remarks on the few grasses which are best 
known to us, and most generally employed, and the proper manage- 
ment of them. 

The stubble crop of red clover seldom grows high in cold cli- 
mates ; in those, it is best to let it rot on the soil ; if grass be scarce, 
it maj be pastured, provided a good covering of the tops be pre- 
served ; even in the lower latitudes, the value of this crop is incon 
siderable ; if used for grazing, or hay, the cattle are salivated. 
The wounds inflicted on the plants, by gathering the crops on which 
the seed was sown, turns a considerable proportion of the grass 
dark coloured, and renders it putrid. This, with the stubble cut off 
with it, often reduces the value of the hay so much, that it appears 
better calculated to injure, than support cattle. 

When it, however, grows so luxuriant, that there is danger of the 
plants falling, and, together with the stubble, forming a close mat, 
which will greatly injure, or destroy their roots, it should be mow- 
ed ; in that case, it will furnish valuable litter, or if better hay can- 
not be had, it may be given to the cattle. 

If oat grass be excepted, stubble crops of the speargrasses, sown 
in the spring, seldom grow high enough to fall, and injure the roots 
of the plants. Unless dry fodder or pasture be scarce, it is best to 
let them grow, and rot on the soil : they, however, furnish much 
better hay or pasture, than stubble clover. If pastured, the cattle 
should not be admitted, until the plants have attained sufficient 
size, to keep them from being pulled up by the roots, and a good 
covering ot their tops should be preserved. 

Timothy makes very valuable, and beautiful hay ; it will be tole- 
rably good, even when suffered to stand, until it is nearly cured, 
before it is cut ; this makes it very valuable, in the back-woods, 
where labour is scarce, and the farmer is sometimes compelled to 
defer mowing too long. 

Mr. Bordley, and some other gentlemen say, timothy furnishes 
the best hay, when mowed after harvest, but this practice seems at 
least doubtful ; while timothy, and many other plants, are forming 
their seed, the leaves commence falling off; therefore if it be suf- 
fered to stand, until its seed be perfected, little, except dried stalks 





290 

is left to be mowed. This is seen ia wheat, the straw cures and 
turns yellow, as the leaves fall, to let in the sun, to perfect the 
seed. 

Timothy yields much seed, and no question but this is stored 
with nutritious matters ; it would, however, seem, that it is too small 
to be generally masticated, either by cattle or horses ; this may be 
readily seen, as it grows plentifully, when dung is dropped by them, 
in situations favourable to the germination of it. 

Timothy, and every other grass with which I am acquainted, 
yields the most, and best hay, when cut in blossom. At that time, 
the leaves have attained their full size, and continue fast on the 
stalk., The rich matters which form the seed, still remain in the 
stems, leaves, and flowers of the plant. 

If securing the leaves, flowers, and rich juices of other plants, 
greatly adds to the value of the hay, it does not seem reasonable to 
believe, that timothy forms better hay, after it has been stripped of 
these valuable properties : especially, as no better reason for recom- 
mending it, has yet been given, than that horses prefer this weather- 
beaten hay ; for there are farmers, who say timothy hay is better, 
when mow burnt, and assign the same reasons to prove this imagi- 
nary fact. 

The true state of the case, seems to be simply this, timothy is 
such an excellent grass, that after injudicious management, or any 
other cause has injured the hay very much, it still retains consider- 
able value. 

If the economy of this very valuable plant, had been investigated 
by the gentlemen who recommend late mowing, they might have 
seen, that nature seems to determine the time of cutting it. When 
it is in full bloom, the shoots which form the second crop, are vigo- 
rously springing around the sides of the bulbs, that formed the 
stems for the first crop. 

But one bulb, and one stem, seems to be at first formed by each 
seed ; the shoots from this, form other bulbs, and each bulb forms 
its own fibrous roots. 

Nature has wisely ordered, that the grasses which are so often 
cropped, should generally propagate from their loots, as well as 
seeds : this encourages too many American farmers, to pursue the 
mistaken economy of sowing by far too little seed, and depend on 
the natural spread of the grasses to cover the soil ; they, however, 
often suffer more from this inconsiderate practice, than ten times 
the value of seed saved by it. 

Until the soil gets tolerably well covered with the grasses, the 
crops will be light. Before this happens from a natural spread of 
them, it too generally occurs, that hardy weeds take possession of 
the vacant ground between the plants. Thin seeding causes tlie 
speargrasses to form tussocks, growing high above the surface of 
the soil. The consequence is highly tedious and wasteful mowing 
of scanty crops, rendered still less valuable by the multiplicity of 
weeds mixed with them. 



291 

This is but a part of the evil occasioned by the deficiency of seed. 
When the grounds are broken up for crops, the tussocks cause te- 
dious and bad ploughing. It being very difficult to turn them well 
under the soil, they are commonly dragged about by the harrow. If 
small grain be sown, they are dragged up into heaps with the seed, 
throughout the whole field, to the great injury of the crop. 

Even a naked fallow, well cultivated, is not sufficient to reduce 
those matted bundles of roots, unless more manual labour be ex- 
pended on them than the farmers in this country, are generally dis- 
posed to bestow. 

If fallow crops be planted, these bundles are pushed or dragged 
about on the surface of the soil, until the riches contained in them 
are scattered in the air, unless a wet season, or an adhesive soil 
keep the grasses and weeds alive. In that case, they prove very 
injurious to the present and future crops. No men, however, com- 
plain louder against tussocks, than those who have introduced 
them, by a bad system of management. If seed enough be sown 
on a soil well prepared, and it prosper, tussocks are never formed. 

Timothy springs and ripens late. It seldom yields a second crop, 
worth mowing, except in moist bottoms or uplands highly enriched. 
It is hardy, and continues growing, until vegetation is locked up 
by frost. The second crop, however, progresses so slowly, that it 
cannot be justly considered extensively useful for grazing, unless 
it possesses very superior properties for fattening cattle. Still this 
grass will be found very profitable for soiling, as the first crop comes 
on later than that of any grass in general use among us, which is 
equally valuable. It is also abundant, when the soil is good, and 
likewise capable of standing longer, and after it is fit to cut, with 
less injury than many other valuable grasses. 

First crop grasses are vastly more nutritive than the second crop. 
Therefore, the fattening of cattle in the yard will be greatly has- 
tened by reserving timothy to be cut for them. An abundant sup- 
ply of it will bring the most forward cattle to an early market. 
This generally enables the farmer to command the highest price 
given for cattle fattened on grass. 

The same effects seem to be produced by reserving the first crop 
grasses for grazing. We may reasonably suppose, that whether 
the graziers in this country are, or are not governed by the theory 
advanced by me, they must have seen that their cattle fattened bet- 
ter when kept in pastures, which were sufficiently luxuriant to bear 
mowing after them, or they would not have adopted the practice, 
which in any other point of view, must be considered very wasteful. 
A full bite (as some term it,) is necessary to facilitate the fatten- 
ing of cattle, especially if they be large: still, a great excess can- 
not be useful, except to preserve a supply of more nutritious food 
than is found in the second crop grasses. The cattle are compel- 
led, in gathering the young and tender shoots of the second crop, to 
gather more or less of the older or more nutritive grasses with them. 
It may also be, that finding the poison contained in the tender 



292 

shoots of some of the second crop grasses, sicken tliem, they have 
the sagacity to prefer, and select enough of the older ones to cor- 
rect this injurious eft'ect. 

Certain it is that when the second crop grasses, given to my cat- 
tle in the yard, consisted of red clover, I have seen them prefer 
eating the old straw, with which their sheds were thatched. Nay, 
more, I have seen them (though naturally quiet,) so much goaded 
by hunger, that they have broken the fence of my cattle yard several 
times in the course of one day, when a plentiful supply of fresh cut, 
beautiful looking, second crop red clover was entirely rejected by 
them, and which no efforts of mine could compel them to eat. 

What may appear still more extraordinary, I have seen them, af- 
ter being turned into the very fields from which this second crop 
clover had been cut, return in the evening tolerably well filled. 
Whether they have sufficient sagacity to pick out the least ob- 
noxious parts of the clover, or to gather other plants that are in 
some certain degree calculated to counteract the baneful effects 
produced by the clover, is unknown to me. The facts are, however, 
correctly related. 

I formerly believed the salivation of horses and cattle, is not al- 
too-ether confined to red clover. I had observed, that in proportion 
as this grass predominated, in loads procured from a mixture of it 
with the speargrasses, my cattle confined in the yard were more 
or less salivated. 

Since I have removed to the back-woods, where red clover is too 
seldom sown, I find the horses and cattle slabber quite as much as 
they do where this grass greatly prevailed. My neighbours say 
white clover is the cause of this. It may be, and I suspect it is, the 
principal cause : but until the cattle be confined where they can get 
no other grass but white clover, nothing certain can be known of 
the extent of slabbering produced by eating it. 

The speargrasses grown on the farm, where soiling was exten- 
sively practised by me, consisted principally of timothy, orchard, 
and green grasses, with some little oat grass. It clearly appear- 
ed, that if these grasses be in any degree affected by the cause 
which produces salivation, it can be but little, as the second 
crops were found capable of greatly correcting the profuse slabber- 
ing certainly introduced in my practice by red clover. These 
"•rasses, when mixed with the clover, never failed to effect this 
valuable purpose, and that too, as far as this could be determined 
by the eye, in due proportion to the quantity of them which hap- 
pened to be mixed with the clover, brought in with them for feeding 
the cattle and horses in the yards. 

If the cause of this disease were known, we might still more cer- 
tainly distinguish the grasses which are not subject to it. If found 
valuable they might be cultivated. 

If my memory be correct, we are informed that gypsum may be 
profitably applied as manure for lucerne. If so, and the plant be 



293 

not aft'ected bj the cause which produces salivation, it will be ati 
excellent substitute for red clover. 

The roots of this grass are hardy. There can, however, be no 
doubt but the superficial cultivation recommended in my book on 
that subject, will effectually prepare a lay formed of it, with but 
little labour, if the sod be well turned. 

If what Robert R. Livingston, Esq. who was practically and well 
acquainted with lucerne, says of the properties of it, be correct, 
and I believe he has not overrated them, it will be found at least 
equal to red clover, when sown broad cast, for all the purposes for 
which the latter plant is employed ; especially, if enough of seed 
be sown. It would also appear, that lucerne may be profitably 
grown on any soil which is not hostile to red clover. That is, if 
what different gentlemen have said of the different soils in which it 
prospered, in their practice, be correct. 

The cause of salivation has been too long sought in the different 
weeds which spring up among clover, in various soils. I have, how- 
ever, been in the habit of sowing the seed of this plant plentifully. 
The clover, of consequence, stood thick on the ground. This in- 
troduced much shade, which, together with the frequent use of the 
scythe, had so far destroyed weeds, that in some places, few, if any, 
were to be found : still, the second and third crop clover mowed 
from those places, were equally injurious to the cattle and horses. 
Most of the diseases to which vegetation is subject, seem to ori- 
ginate from insects. It is by no means improbable that the mala- 
dy in *ed clover is occasioned by them : also, that if the second 
crop were properly and carefully examined, through the different 
stages of its growth, the cause would be seen. This might lead to 
the best means of preventing, or counteracting, the evil arising 
from it. 

This disease is checked by the first white frost that is seen to 
cover the grasses, in the fall. If the frosts succeed each other tole- 
rably quick, it, with the Hessian fly, and all other flies, disappear. 
I have seen a heavy white frost put an immediate stop to every ap- 
pearance of salivation among horses and cattle. When this, how- 
ever, was not followed by other frosts, slabbering soon recom- 
menced, and continued until it was again checked by the same cause. 
May we not infer, from this, that if the farmer deferred cutting his 
second crop clover, until frost checked the slabbering among his 
cattle, that all the grass mowed until salivation again commenced, 
would make valuable hay. Until now, however, I have never 
thought of this, although I have often observed that cattle and 
horses grazed on second crop clover, gathered flesh as fast as on 
any other second crop grass, after white frost put a stop to saliva 
tion. 

Horses and cattle gather but little flesh when grazed on red do 
ver, during the season for salivation. Cows immediately fail in 
their milk. The butter made while slabbering continues is gene 



294 

rally bad, and some cattle and horses fall away greatly even in 
luxuriant pastures of this grass. 

I ought to have observed before, that when timothy is sown on 
small grain, in the fall, if it be done early, the plants head among 
the grain, and greatly injure the crop ; if late, the young and ten- 
der roots of the plants are often thrown out by frost. 

This, and every other grass with which I am acquainted, is best 
sown on spring grain, early in the season. It, however, and red 
clover, prosper well when sown on fall grain, early in the spring, 
or in February, as may best suit the climate. The freezing nights 
and thawing days, at this season of the year, cover the seed, and 
prepare the soil for the more ready admission of the roots of the 
plants. The farmer, however, should remember, that not less than 
one peck to the acre of these seeds should be sown.* 

Some sow grass seed on the snow, as in this way they can better 
see how it is done. The practice is a bad one. If the snow melts 
suddenly, the grass seed is swept away by the water arising 
from it. 

Oat grass grows from five to six feet high. It is the earliest, 
latest, and most productive grass known to me. If it be, as Dr. 
Muhlenburg represents it, "the best grass for green fodder and 
hay," it must be very valuable. The leaves are broad and exten- 
sive. On my farm, in such parts of the soil as were good, every 
crop produced a flowering stem. This seems to increase the value 
of the second, third, and fourth crops, for hay or soiling. It grew 
much faster and higher than any other grass on my farm. It may 
be cut oftener than any other grass that I have seen. As the crops 
are, also, more abundant, it must be very valuable, if its fattening 
properties be equal to its product. 

My acquaintance with this grass has been very limited ; but it 
so happened that a part of the grounds first sown with it by me, 
was very stiff, retentive clay, and another part quite loose, sandy, 
and dry. It grew luxuriantly on both. A scarcity of speargrasses 
induced me to cut the stubble crop of this patch for soiling my cat- 
tle and horses. It was freely eaten by them, and, as it grows very 
rapidly, the grounds produced another crop the same fall, which 
was applied in the same way. 

Nothing but necessity should induce cutting stubble crops for 
soiling. Cattle, either from their previous habit, or some other 
cause, appear to be incapable of selecting their food, when given 
to them in a compact mass. In this case, they are compelled either 
to reject the grass, or eat a very considerable proportion of the 
stubble and weeds contained in it. Stubble grasses, however, may 
be fed to young cattle in a separate yard, when better grass is 
scarce. 

• Also, that the clover plant is much tenderer than timothy, and most other 
speargrasses ; consequently, the seed should be later sown. Still, not so late 
as to prevent the frosts from covering it, and preparing the soil for the more 
jeady admission of the roots of the plants. 



295 

The patch of oat grass mentioned above, was mowed the ensuing 
year for hay. But it so happened that it was not done until the 
seed was ripe. This, with some dripping weather while the hay 
was curing, caused it to look more like straw than hay. I believe 
it should be mowed as soon as the blossoms appear. The seed shat- 
ters out very soon after it is fit to gather: therefore, if great care 
be not taken to reap the plants in time, and to handle them very 
cautiously in the reaping, gathering, &c. little or no seed will 
be saved. 

The seed is very light and chaffy, consequently seems to be 
easily injured in the process of gathering aud saving it. The little 
sown by me vegetated badly. It was sown at the rate of three 
bushels to the acre, and carefully harrowed in by a light harrow 
after sowing barley, for which the grounds had been well prepared. 
The same happened when sown in the spring on winter grain. 
The seed of it and orchard grass seem too light and chaffy to be 
successfully sown on winter grain in the spring. They appear to 
lie on the surface like chaff, and too much of it is either blown 
away by the wind or rots on the ground. This, however, might 
not happen if the seed was fully formed before it was gathered.* 

I am doubtful whether oat grass is capable of furnishing either 
green fodder or hay equally as nutritious as timothy or orchard 
grass. Its stems are very hollow. The hollows in the stems of 
timothy are small. Scarcely any hollow appears in those of or- 
chard grass: still, as the oat grass exceeds either of the last men- 
tioned grasses in quantity, and every crop produces flowering 
stems, when the soil is rich, also springs earlier and grows faster 
even than orchard grass, it may be found very valuable for pasture, 
soiling and hay; therefore it should be carefully cultivated on a 
small scale until its fattening properties are better understood. 
As the seed of it is large, light and chaffy, it would seem that 
less than three bushels to the acre should not be sown, even when 
the seed is good. 

Orchard grass is very valuable. It springs very early. When 
cut off by the scythe, it neither waits for fresh shoots from its roots, 
nor until its wounds be healed, but continues growing on just as if 
nothing had happened. The leaves which have been cut will grow, 
on a rich soil, nearly, if not quite, one inch in the course of twenty- 
four hours, forming new points gradually as they increase in length. 
It is very observable, when it has been sown with red clover, and 
both cut off by the scythe at the same time, that it greatly outstrips 
the clover when cool weather commences in the fall, and soon be- 
comes much taller than it. The stalk of orchard grass is very 
solid, grows high, and the leaves are abundant; therefore the first 
crop of it will greatly exceed that of timothy. As horses and cattle 

* As orchard and oat grass seed shatter out soon after ripe, this may have 
induced those who gather these seeds for sale, to do it before the structure of 
them have been sufficiently formed to vegetate well. 



296 

eat the hay freely, and thrive well on it, I am compelled to believe 
it must be a much more profitable grass for this purpose. As it 
blossoms with red clover, and should be cut at the same time for 
hay, and will (except in high latitudes) produce a good first, 
second and third crop for mowing, if the soil be good, it must be 
greatly preferable to timothy, either for soiling, grazing, or hay, 
unless it should hereafter be found, that it is greatly inferior to 
that grass in nutritive properties. No information or observation, 
however, has occurred, since my acquaintance with both these 
grasses, which would justify this opinion. On the contrary, it 
would appear, that orchard grass is as nutritive as any of the 
grasses generally used by us, and that it may be more profitably 
employed either for hay, pasture, or grazing, than any of them. 

Notwithstanding the great value of orchard grass, it will be 
found much the best practice to cultivate no more of it for hay 
than can be cut and secured in proper time. Though it will stand 
without apparent injury some time after it be fit to cut, it is 
greatly injured if mowing be deferred for a considerable time after 
it is in full bloom. 

The seed of this grass is light and chaffy, shatters out greatly, 
unless the plants be cut in time, and very carefully handled. It 
would seem that the seed is often damaged. I have sown three 
bushels of it to the acre without obtaining any thing like a suffi- 
ciency of plants. As it is much smaller than oat grass seed, it 
would seem, that one bushel of it ought to be enough for an acre 
of ground, if the seed was sowed without being injured. 

The plant yields an abundance of seed: therefore, saving a plen- 
tiful supply of it will not cost the farmer much labour if he be care- 
ful in the gtithering and saving of it. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Observations on green grass. Further remarks on grazing ; also, on orchard 
grass and red clover. On haymaking. 

VJreen grass will neither vegetate, nor grow in a poor soil ; the 
seed lies torpid, until the soil happens to be enriched ; it then 
proves itself to be a hardy native ; where the soil is only tolerably 
good, it will root out, not only the foreign grasses, but alsoa Imost 
every inferior native grass. 

In this way, our fields of green grass are procured, but it pro- 
gresses slowly, in covering the soil, if it be not rich. As farmers 
generally give but too little attention to manuring their grounds, 
it commonly happens, before this valuable grass spreads itself well 
over them, that poverty, aided by time, and the hoofs of the cattle, 
consolidates the soil, and the grass crops are light. When the soil 
is naturally rich, or has been highly manured, it will spread more 
rapidly, an(d the crops are very valuable, either for hay, grazing, or 
soiling ; unless, however, the whole of the produce be consumed by 
cattle, which continue on the grounds at night, as well as in the day, 
and the dung from them be carefully spread abroad over the soil, 
poverty, with the aid of time, and the hoofs of the cattle, will conso- 
lidate the soil so much, that vegetation will languish. When this 
happens, and the owner is determined on grazing, he may open the 
soil, by a covering of enriching manure; if this be scarce, it may 
be opened, by suffering a good second crop of grass to grow- and. 
cover the grounds closely, through the fall and winter. The final 
decay of it will also enrich the ground considerably; but if the 
soil be too thin to produce a good second crop, the whole of the 
grass grown through the season, should be suffered to remain, and 
rot on the ground.* 

Perhaps, a partial relief may be obtained, by Mr. West's plan, of 
sowing red clover seed, over the green grass, when the soil becomes 
consolidated. The introduction of this plant, however, in grazing 
grounds, should be avoided ; it will certainly poison the cattle, 
more or less, during the season of salivation ; but few of them will 
gather flesh, and some will fall off', until frost has checked, or de- 
stroyed the cause, which produces this injurious effect. 

It is useless to commence grazing on a thin soil, without the aid 
of the plough, or extraneous manure. After the grazier has, by 
either of these modes, or both united, enriched his grounds: if he 
be determined on grazing exclusively; it will be found best, not to 
introduce any plant which is known to acquire, and communicate, 
the poison that salivates horses and cattle. It is probable, that no 

* .See note at the end of this chapter, page 305, SOfi 
Pp 



298 

plant in general use among us, will answer liis purpose so well, for 
laying down his grounds in grass, as orchard grass ; it not only pos- 
sesses the properties which have been described, but it is also so hard 
to be rooted out, that I have seen it growing more luxuriantly, after 
an inefficient cultivation of the soil, than it did before this cultiva- 
tion took place. Nay more, I have seen it growing among green 
grass, without any appearance of its being rooted out, even by this 
very hardy native. 

It, however, seems probable, that green grass will eventually root 
it out, if so, the grounds will be sooner or later covered by the for- 
mer ; it being very hardy, and springing very eariy, and continuing 
to grow, until vegetation is hard bound up by frost, it is the next 
plant to orchard grass, in value for grazing, and will continue for 
ever, if the soil be kept rich. The grazier must expect, however, to 
be continually pestered with weeds, still much more hardy than 
green grass : also, that his grounds will not yield him any thing 
like as much valuable vegetation, as if they were subjected to a re- 
gular, convertible husbandry. 

Green grass can never be very valuable to the farmer, in the way 
it is commonly obtained; this being from a natural, and too fre- 
quently from a very slow spread of it, over his grounds, as the red 
clover plant may happen to run out. The result of this practice 
is, commonly, thin, light crops, until the soil becomes sufficiently co- 
vered by the green grass ; before this occurs, it often happens, that 
the grounds become too much exhausted, to produce valuable crops 
of this grass. 

When this takes place, many farmers say, the soil is hidebound, 
without appearing even to suspect, that it may also be poverty 
bound ; the lay, of consequence, is ploughed up, and subjected to 
such a course of crops, as may chance to be fashionable in his neigh- 
bourhood ; if he be, what some call a good farmer, the grounds after 
an impoverishing course of cultivated crops, are sown with red 
clover ; this is manured by gypsum, and as a very reduced portion 
of the enriching matters, introduced by the roots of the grasses still 
remains, he obtains a profitable crop of red clover: of consequence, 
highly values the great improvement, introduced by this supposed 
ameliorating system of husbandry. He is therefore encouraged to 
go on with it, until the soil becomes too much exhausted for even 
the wonder working powers of gypsui to act profitably : thus, 
finding himself disappointed in his irrational expectation, he is 
very apt to believe, with too many more, who have also used this 
invaluable substance very improperly, that the evil introduced by 
his own folly has been done by the gypsum. 

The stem of green grass is as solid as that of timothy, and the 
hay seems to be equally good. It is, however, a small plant when 
compared with either of the grasses mentioned above. The size 
of it would be considerably increased by sowing the seed on the 
grounds properly prepared : yet even this could not induce it to pro- 
duce any thing like as much vegetation as oat or orchard grass. No 



299 

question but the first crop of timothy would also exceed that of the 
green grass considerably. As, however, the aftergrowth of the latter 
would exceed that of the former, this would make up the deficiency, 
unless dry weather ensued after the first cutting j for in that case, 
both of these grasses sutfer exceedingly. 

This should highly recommend orchard grass to the particular 
attention of farmers. I have not only seen it green, but also pro- 
gressing in growth, while green grass and timothy were parched up 
by drought; and there seems to be no doubt but it is equally as 
nutritious as either of them, for grazing or soiling. It should, how- 
ever, be recollected, that the nutritive properties of food, is a difficult 
question. Unless the cattle be regularly and very carefully fed on 
each in due succession, and their gain or loss determined by weigh- 
ing them, but little can be correctly known of this very interesting 
subject. Much will also depend on whether the grasses, at the time 
the experiment is made, are in those stages of their growth, which 
will be alike favourable to the nutritive matters each of them is 
capable of affording. There is certainly much less nutritive matter 
in grass when it is young, than when it is older; there is also a great 
difterence, in this respect, between first and second crop grasses. 

Notwithstanding the second crop of red clover salivates horses 
and cattle, under this very apparent disadvantage it may be justly 
considered exceedingly valuable. Not less, however, than one peck 
of the seed of this grass should be sown to the acre. When a suf- 
ficiency of seed is sown, more grass is obtained. The stem is smaller, 
and more freely eaten by cattle, either in pasture, soiling, or hay. 
The hay is sooner cured. The cocks formed of it do not let in near so 
much rain as when the stems of the grass are very large. The lay is 
enriched by the increased number of the roots for the growth of the 
cultivated crops following this grass. The weeds are smothered by 
the close shade of the plants, when a sufficiency of seed is sown ; 
and the rich depositions from the atmosphere are also far better se- 
cured, as the injurious effects of the sun and air are excluded. 

This is not only applicable to clover, for the same advantages 
are to be derived from^ sowing a sufficiency of any kind of grass 
seed in due proportion to the different properties of the plants. 
The stem of red clover is very solid and succulent. I'he first crop 
is not only abundant, but also excellent, either for hay, soiling, or 
grazing. There is no grass, in common use with us, which seems 
to be so valuable for hogs. 

Some assert that horses are injured from being kept on this hay. 
No question but this has often happened, and to a very serious and 
sometimes fatal extent, when luxuriant crops of this grass have been 
suffered to stand until they become slimy and mouldy in the bot- 
tom; or when the hay has been injured in the curing; or put into 
mow, or stack, before it had been sufficiently cured. 

The latter practice has done incredible damage. Thoun-h some 
gentlemen may have succeeded in curing it, in this way, so far as 
to imagine the hay was greatly improved by that practice, this does 



300 

not establish the fact, for many of tliem have also believed, and as- 
serted, that timothy hay is much better when the plants are suffered 
to stand so long, that but little except dried stalks are gathered. 
Others, that it is more valuable, when burned in the mow. 

There is still a much better reason to believe that those advo- 
cates for inning clover hay, before it would have been formerly 
considered half cured, are egregiously mistaken. Previously to the 
introduction of that very irrational practice, we seldom heard of 
horses injured by being kept on it. When we did hear of this evil, 
it was attributed to the real cause; to wit, to the hay being injured. 

It is really wonderful that gentlemen of talents, and accustomed 
to reflect, should select this plant, in preference to all others, to be 
cured in the mow. Its large, solid, and very succulent stem, ren- 
ders it much more subject to damage from being put up too green, 
than most other grasses in use with us. This assertion is not found- 
ed on theory, for I have extensively cured clover and all my other 
grasses in swath. Clover hay has also been too often put into mow 
and stack by me before it was sufficiently cured with or without 
salt. I have also observed the effects produced by this practice, 
when it was pursued by others. 

It generally causes the hay to become more burned, and sometimes 
injures it so much that it would be the roost economical practice to 
use it for litter, and buy better, rather than risk suffering the in- 
jury, too often introduced, by feeding it to domesticated animals. 
Instead of saving the rich juices of the hay by this very inconsi- 
derate practice, they are compelled to undergo a process that 
actually destroys the greater part of them, and are but too often 
converted into a slow, and sometimes a deadly poison. 

The reason given for this practice, is, that the rich juices and 
leaves of the plants are better preserved. It should, however, be 
recollected, that the water, which forms a large portion of the clo- 
ver and other plants, forms no part of the rich matters or juices, 
notwithstanding it may be mixed with them; and that, from its pro- 
perties, it is calculated to escape first. Also, that when this fluid 
has been sufficiently evaporated, the hay should be inned. 

If the plants be mowed so soon as they are in full bloom their 
leaves will be found closely adhering to their stems. When the 
blossoms begin to fade, nature weakens the grasp of the leaves, 
that they may gradually fall off, and let in the sun and air to per- 
fect the seed : consequently, even those leaves which may be found 
on the plants when they are late mowed are much more liable to 
fall off during the making and inning of the hay. 

Perhaps this may be better understood by remarking, that, if a 
tree be cut down, or girdled, some time previously to that period 
at which nature has determined to loosen the grasp of the leaves, 
80 that they may fall, the leaves on the tree which has been girdled 
or cut down, wither, but continue so firmly fixed to the branches 
and twigs that they are not readily removed by time. They retain 



301 

their natural position a long while after the fall of the leaves from 
trees of the same description. 

Notwithstanding these very obvious facts, many farmers will not 
mow the red clover plant until the blossoms generally fade; and 
by far too many, not until the seed is fully formed. Some say that 
the quality of the hay is injured ; others, that the plants shrink, 
and the quality and quantity are both reduced by mowing early. 
If either happens, I have not observed it. I have, however, seen, 
that after tlie flowers begin to fade the plants seem to loose far 
more at the bottom than they gain at their tops : also, that if mow- 
ing be deferred until the plants become quite old the hay will 
salivate horses. As this happened but once with me, the cause 
was not investigated. It was supposed to originate from the 
second crop growing from the roots of the plants to a suflScient size, 
before the first crop was mowed, to become affected with the 
poison that produces slabbering. 

I did not like to abandon the practice of curing hay in the 
swath, having observed that it saved labour. The grasses are at 
all times very expeditiously turned in the swath. If continued 
rains occur, the swaths are not only quickly turned, but if the sun 
shines powerfully between the showers, the inside of them is not 
scorched by its rays. By turning the swaths, throughout long 
continued rain, so often as the underside of them was likely to be 
injured by fermentation, I have saved extensive fields of hay, while 
my neighbours, who gave no attention to this interesting subject, 
had their crops entirely ruined. If the grasses, however, be raked 
up into small winrows, they are as readilj^ turned, and may be as 
effectually preserved, as if they remained in swath, but in this case 
the labour is greater. 

Curing hay in swath, to save the juices, seems to be not only 
practically wrong, but also opposed to reason. The confined heat 
and moisture in the interior of the swath promote fermentation : 
this must be more or less injurious to the nutritive matters con- 
tained in the grasses. It is exactly calculated to weaken the 
grasp of the leaves, and separate them from the stalk. It also 
greatly weakens their general texture, and causes them to crumble 
into pieces when they become dry. While this is doing, the out- 
side surface of the swath is scorched by the rays of the sun, and 
becomes but little better than straw, before the inside is moderately 
cured. In raking, cocking, heaping and inning, the swaths are so 
far separated that many of the leaves are lost before the hay gets 
into the mow : but few of them get into the rack. This is best 
seen when barns are constructed on the side of a hill, and the cattle 
and horses stabled and fed in the lower story. In that case the 
hay is first pitched from the mow into the threshing floor, from 
thence it is pitched through <the trap-doorway into the passage 
formed below for distributing the hay into the racks. 

Now, the quantity of leaves which are gathered together by this 
simple process, both in the threshing floor and feeding passage, is 



302 

so amazingly great when their texture has been injured by ex- 
cessive heat, or fermentation, that it would far exceed credibility 
with those who have not given due attention to this interesting 
fact. This is not all: the imperfectly cured part of the hay in 
the middle of the swaths too often creates an immoderate heat, 
and causes the whole mass to become either dusty, mouldy, or 
mow burned. 

The good old way of shaking out the swaths, and spreading them 
carefully over the whole surface of the soil, as fast as the grasses 
are mowed, will, in this instance at least, be found much the best. 
The old practice should, however, be stripped of the very expen- 
sive, and, but too frequently, exceedingly injurious labour employ- 
ed in it of turning and cocking the grasses by far too often. This 
can do no possible good, and, but too generally, causes a great loss 
of the leaves and nutritious juices, by drying the hay too much. 
Still, when the crop of hay is so luxuriant as to cover the surface 
of the soil very deeply, it must, of consequence, be more frequently 
turned ; especially, until the leaves get properly withered. 

Winrows, in the evening, will be found sufficient, until the hay is 
more than half cured. After this it demands the farmer's most se- 
rious attention, as it is liable to great injury from wet, and is fre- 
quently not only greatly injured, but also ruined, by rain : therefore, 
in this stage of the process, the cultivator should not leave the field 
in the evening, or when rain is expected, before he has eifectually 
secured the whole in high,* sharp topped, and well formed cocks, 
smoothly raked down, and the bottoms of them well tucked under: 
especial care should be taken to cover the tops of the cocks with 
that part of the hay best calculated to form a kind of thatch over 
them. The cocks should be placed on such spots as are best calcu- 
lated to prevent water from running under and wetting the bottom 
of them. Unless the hay be fit to put into the mow, it should be 
spread out the ensuing morning, if the weather permit, around the 
spot where the cock stands, in that way best calculated to cure, 
and, at tlie same time, to abridge the labour of putting it up into 
heaps, for hauling in, or in cock, in the evening, if it should not be 
sufficiently cured. After the cocks have been spread open, the hay 
should be turned and shook up, so as to admit the air and sun, as 
often through the day as the case may seem to require. 

It is impossible to say how long it will take to cure hay in this 
way. This can only be determined by the succulence and size of 
the grasses and crops, and weather that may chance to occur. In 
general, however, the process is short, and far from being laborious, 
if the grass be well spread and lightly shook out, as fast as it is 
mowed, and so managed as to cause it to become generally wither- 
ed as soon as this can be effected. X)n this very simple, but at the 
same time, powerful and interesting part of the process, very much 

• If cocks be not made high in proportion to their widtli, they become too 
flat, after they have settled, to turn off rain. 



303 

depends. It is the first, and, if well managed, the principal step 
to be taken to save the hay, not only from the great injury arising 
from fermentation, but also from the risk naturally arising from its 
lying out much longer, when cured in swath : or the still much greater 
risk which arises from the injudicious practice of putting it into 
mow or stack before it is sufficiently cured. 

The leaves of the hay which has been spread out immediately 
after the mowers, and turned and shook open as soon as it ought to 
be done, become tough by withering in the open air, as do the leaves 
on the tree that has been girdled, or cut down, before nature had 
loosened their grasp. They will, also, like those leaves, maintaia 
their strength, unless the hay be dried too much. Even in that 
case, they are far less subject to fall oft", or crumble to pieces, than 
they would be if the grasses were not cut until after nature had 
commenced loosening the grasp of their leaves ; or if, after they 
had been cut, fermentation had loosened their grasp, and, also, 
greatly injured the texture of them. The withering of the outside 
of the swath hastens the flexibility within it. This soon forms a 
mass sufficiently compact to produce as much heat and fermenta- 
tion as will loosen the grasp of the leaves, and greatly weaken the 
general texture of them. 

It is true, that if the weather should chance to be too long wet, 
the hay will heat and ferment in the cocks. But this is unavoidable 
in any mode of management: therefore, the injury done in this 
way will frequently occur, unless it should hereafter be discovered 
that measures may be taken which will prevent it. 

When long continued rain occurs, hay may be cured principally 
by the heat originating in the cock ; and, as I believe, better, and 
with less labour than in any other way that has been yet proposed, 
to prevent very material injury, when the season happens to be 
dripping. 

1 formerly cut and cured much third crop hay. It so happened 
once, that after the melting of a fall of snow, about six inches deep, 
I cut and cured a small field of grass. The weight of the snow 
had laid it very near to the ground. This, however, did not seem 
greatly to impede the mowing. The mower was expert, and care- 
ful to change his position so as best to suit the diff'erent directions 
in which the grass happened to be laid. 

This, and other circumstances, induce me to believe that second 
or third crop hardy grasses may be profitably reserved through the 
winter, to be cut early in the spring for feeding cattle in the yard : 
especially where snow would greatly preserve the grasses from in- 
jury throughout the winter. 

Frequent rainy, cloudy weather, with short days and a distant sun, 
often make it necessary to cure the grasses mowed late in the fall 
principally by heat in the cock. 

In my practice, the grass, so soon as it became generally wither- 
ed, was put up in high, well formed cocks. Heat soon expelled a 
part of the moisture from the interior of the plants. Much of this, 



304 

of consequence, lodged in the cock. When {he weather was such 
as to dry the outsides of the cocks, they were opened and spread 
out, but no further from where the cock stood than seemed abso- 
lutely necessary. This, with turning and shaking up the grasses, 
caused the moisture which had been lodged in the cock to evapo- 
rate. If the day chanced to favour the process, some of the mois- 
ture still remaining in the interior of the plants, also escaped. 

In the evening the grass was again put up into cock, and the 
management above described pursued, until it was sufficiently cured 
to be put into mow ; except tliat, in proportion as the hay cured, 
the size of the cocks were doubled, by putting two of them into 
one, until they became very large. 

In one instance, however, so much cloudy, cool, dripping weather 
prevailed, that the grass never became sufficiently wilted or dry to 
be put up into cock. The whole of it was eventually so much in- 
jured, that it was hauled into the cattle yard for litter. 

Whenever it can be accomplished, hay should never heat except 
in stack or mow, and no more there than is absolutely necessary to 
settle it into a tolerably compact mass. 

When hay is put too green in the mow, an immoderate heat en- 
sues. Water being a subtile fluid, makes its escape. This in- 
tense heat, however, also expels the rich juices from the interior of 
the plants. Little of them seems to escape ; but it would appear 
that they are decomposed and dried in the oven which folly has 
heated ; and if the barn be not set on fire, by this inconsiderate 
project, become very injurious, and sometimes a deadly poison to 
cattle and horses. 

If the multiplied herbs gathered for culinary and medicinal pur- 
poses, and the immense quantities of tea brought from China, were 
put up in heaps or boxes, previously to their being half cured for* 
the express purpose of saving the valuable juices contained in them, 
we should soon smell and taste, and, if compelled to use them, se- 
verely feel, and loudly complain against, the evils introduced by 
that irrational practice. 

Horses and cattle smell and taste, at least as accurately as men ; 
they also feel as severely the consequence of being compelled 
to live on unwholesome food, stripped of its nutritive properties. 
They cannot, however, tell us of this : therefore, things must re- 
main as they are until men are convinced, that no practice should 
be repugnant to nature, reason, and common sense. 

Red clover produces a large second crop, and if the soil be good, 
and the climate not too backward, the third crop is far from being 
inconsiderable. Farmers gather their seed from the second crop ; 
it, and also the third crop, would be very valuable for hay soiling, or 
grazing, if it did not salivate the cattle. 

The slabbering is but trivial, if the hay of the first crop be fed 
during the night, and that of the second or third crop, through the 
«lay : still, it seems doubtful, whether much is gained by the se- 
cond and third crop, even when they are fed in this way : as both 



S05 

horses and cattle will slabber some, and must be more or less sick- 
ened by it, they may lose nearly as much as they gain from this 
unwholesome food. 

These crops certainly do more injury than good, when used for 
soiling. If they be grazed, cows fail greatly in tlieir milk, and, 
though cattle may be kept in pasture on this grass, it cannot be 
depended on to fatten them generally, until after frost has checked 
it, or put a stop to salivation. 

Many things have been proposed, to counteract the salivation, 
but I believe the whole have failed. Ingenious, and skilful men, 
however, should continue to make experiments. It may be, that 
some mode of curing the hay, or some substance strewed among it, 
■while putting it into the mow, might destroy, or correct the poison. 
Be this as it may, the subject is interesting, and worthy of much 
attention. No grass known to us, seems to be so well calculated 
to form a lay for small grain. I believe it would greatly puzzle 
the most ingenious farmer, to enrich a poor soil in this country, 
speedily, and profitably, without the aid of this invaluable plant, 
unless as valuable crops of lucerne may be as readily excited by 
gypsum, as of it. The second and third crops of red clover, will, 
however, be found profitable for pasture, and perhaps for hay, after 
white frost has checked, or put a stop to salivation. No question, 
but they will also be found exceedingly valuable, when ploughed 
under, or suffered to rot on the soil. 

Still, I would advise the farmer, who has enriched his grounds 
sufficiently, and possesses the certain means of keeping them so, to 
banish this plant. The poisonous properties of all, but the first 
crops, will cause it to be a very obnoxious weed to him, which he 
can very readily do without. 

Notwithstanding I have very pointedly advised him to apply 
the worst of weeds, which may chance to grow on his grounds, to 
every possible advantage, I do not wish to favour the growth, even 
of the very best of them, when the soil may be covered by vegeta- 
tation, which will be far more useful to him. He will, however, 
find it nearly as difficult to banish red clover, as the hardiest weed 
found in his grounds. It will be a work of time, as much of the 
seed is shattered by the plants on the ground, and a very great 
deal of it saved in the dung, whether the manure be, or be not 
used before it is decomposed.* 

• \n old acquaintance of mine in Maryland, manured apiece of ground 
which had been exhausted, and laid it down in timothy ; he mowed the first 
crop annually, during nine years, without applying any manure, except that 
arising from the grass of the second crop, which he suffered annually to grow, 
and rot on the soil. The crops cut for hay were very abundant, and the last, 
quite as good as any of them. The seed grown, and scattered by the few 
weakly lateral shoots, which, by yielding to the stroke, escaped the scythe, 
kept the grounds well cov ered with this grass. The land lay high, and in that 
way, which seemed to favour but little, if any, advantage from the washings 
arising from grounds, which lay still higher than it. I can say nothing of what 

Qq 



306 

There are many other valuable grasses, some of which have been 
cultivated in this country; as I however know nothing of them, 
either from practice or observation, and wish to avoid subjects, 
resting on reading alone, unless, when the introduction of them, 
appears to be of considerable importance, I have said nothing of 
such grasses, except the observations made on lucerne. 

happened in those grounds after the nhie years had elapsed, as I have since 
heard nothing' from them. 

I have, however, since my removal to the back-woods, adopted the same prac- 
tice, but without using dung, and commonly on exhausted grounds. So far, it 
seems to have succeeded, but best where clover was sown in place of timothy, 
on soils which had been previously exhausted. It has, however, so happened, 
that scattering plants of red clover, which originated from seed that had been 
formerly dropped by the cattle in their dung, come up with the timothy. The 
seed of these scattering plants, and that from their descendants, have been an- 
nually and very rapidly spreading the red clover over the grounds ; as it pros- 
pers much better than timothy in a thin soil, it would seem from what has al- 
ready occurred, that the latter grass will be rooted out, and red clover take 
possession of the soil ; especially, as since gypsum has been used, the white 
clover appears to be giving way to the red ; this seems to be the more proba- 
ble, as all the seed from the second crop of red clover is perfected, and the 
wind, rain, and melting snows spread it over the soil, except that part of it 
which may be destroyed by the few cattle and horses, which necessity has 
hitherto obliged me sometimes to pasture on the ground. It would, however, 
appear, that ns the cattle or horses are not turned in until the second crop of 
grass has nearly attained its full growth, and kept at night, as well as in the 
day, on the grounds, that the only, or principal injury done by them, is cropping 
off some of the heads of the clover plants, growing where the seed from them 
might have been profitably spread by nature over the soil. 1 do not, howevec, 
believe that grounds may be profitably mowed, if the second crop be pastured ; 
the manure in this case dropped by the cattle, will be so thinly scattered, that 
many parts of the soil will receive no aid from it for a long time ; it is, however 
otherwise, when the second crop is suffered to rot on the ground, as tliis is re- ' 
gularly spread over the whole surface of the field. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

On soiling', or feeding cattle in yards or stalls. Much injury is done by feeding 
second and third crop clover to cattle when confined in stables or yards. 
Various and highly important advantages are to be derived by feeding- cattle 
on grass in yards. Soiling cannot be profitably practised on an extensive 
scale, unless tlie cattle be reared in the yard, or brought in whde they are 
very young On cattle lioven by eating red clover, &c. On giving salt to 
cattle. On hogs and sheep. Every farmer should soil his working cattle 
and horses. 

If I were to attempt to describe the great produce that might 
be obtained from reducing into one system of management, the 
improvements which have been already discovered in agricul- 
ture, it would exceed credibility. As these improvements have 
been only partially practised by different cultivators, and always 
more or less intermixed with very injurious practices, but little is 
known of the advantages that would arise from uniting them into 
one perfect system of husbandry. Therefore, on this very inter- 
esting subject but little has yet appeared. 

My practice during five years, on the farm near Philadelphia, 
was, in theory, good, except that part of it which mutilated the 
roots of the plants, checked fermentation, wasted the farm yard 
manure, as well as that from the roots and tops of the grasses, and 
likewise formed ridges and gutters, exactly calculated to produce 
artificial droughts. These errors, however, together with that of 
generally crowding by fiir too many plants in the rows of my fal- 
low crops, greatly curtailed the products of my soil. 

My practice was also very much crippled, in consequence of be- 
ing misled by those who wrote, in this country, on soiling : but most 
assuredly had never practised it, or they would have discovered 
that red clover, which they especially recommend for this purpose, 
was exactly calculated to defeat their intention, by convincing 
their pupils that soiling is impracticable in this country. I have 
reason to believe that this evil was effected, for though I have heard 
of many who attempted soiling, it appears that in every instance, 
it was quickly abandoned, from a clear conviction that it could not 
be profitably practised in this country. 

Fallow crops, in the place of naked fallows, appear to be the lead- 
ing improvement in husbandry. Even those, who say they will 
not answer but on a few soils, must allow, that if they could be 
generally practised, the produce would be vastly increased, and 
much labour saved. 

If deep rooted prejudice in favour of perpetual meadows or grass 
grounds, did not prevent impartial reasoning on the merit due to 



808 

that system of management, it would be clearly seen, that convert- 
ible husbandry would add greatly to the improvement made by 
fallow crops. This practice is most assuredly capable of introduc- 
ing another very extensive addition to the products and improve- 
ment of the soil. To effect this fully, the whole of the grounds 
should be subjected to that system of management, excepting such 
only as cannot be ploughed, or are subject to be washed away by 
floods, and the grass lays, manure and cultivation, ordered in the 
way that has been pointed out in my book on Cultivation. 

If this be done, and soiling be added to a well directed convertible 
husbandry, the practice of agriculture will be as perfect as our 
present knowledge of that art, and the instruments best calculated 
to execute the labour, will admit. 

Soiling will not only save much more than half the grass, neces- 
sary for pasturing the stock, but it will also introduce a great addi- 
tional quantity of manure. It is readily allowed, that notwith- 
standing cattle, while grazing, drop part of it where it does but lit- 
tle, and sometimes no good, that they also drop vastly more where 
it is very beneficially applied; and that notwithstanding a great 
part of the riches contained it is exhaled by the sun, scattered into 
the air, and washed away by the rains, the same happens to top 
dressings; and that too, very generally, after the manure has lost, 
by decomposition, a great proportion of its best properties, previously 
to the application of it. 

Every practice should be allowed the full extent of the merit due 
to it; especially if we mean to prove it inferior to that recommend- 
ed by us. It is, however, after this has been done, a notorious fact, 
that the manure gathered by soiling, is much more considerable, 
and vastly more extensively useful to the farmer, than that promis- 
cuously dropped by cattle while grazing. He may secure it from 
any material waste, until wanted, and apply it in that way which 
will be most useful to him. 

When soiling is practised, the grounds are not hard trod, and 
sunk into holes by the feet of the cattle. The working horses and 
cattle are always at hand. As they have not the trouble of gather- 
ing their food, they are quickly filled, and soon ready for business. 
"When turned out to graze, it requires some considerable time to 
gather a sufficiency of the young and tender grasses, which they 
greatly prefer to the older, when grazing in the fields. From some 
cause unknown to me, they do not like the young and tender 
grasses, when mowed and fed to them in yards, even before saliva- 
tion takes place. This has obliged me to defer cutting red clover 
for them in the spring, until it had attained a considerable size. I 
found, notwithstanding they had been previously confined entirely 
to dry fodder, that they greatly preferred it to clover, when grown 
only seven or eight inches high. 

When live stock are confined in well fenced yards, the farmer 
niay sleep quietly; his crops are not injured by their breaking into 



309 

his fields. Division fences are saved ; they are costly, and a nur- 
sery for weeds. 

Cattle, when they are first turned in upon red clover, are often 
hoven. The fields are frequently distant, and the cattle dispersed 
over them ; it is, therefore, troublesome to pay that attention the 
case requires, and many losses occur from this cause ; they seem to 
be equally subject to this disease, when fed upon clover in the yard, 
but the necessary attention is readily given to them there. 

The symptoms are restiveness, with an unnatural extension of 
their sides, belly and flanks ; the upper part of their tail, is gene- 
rally extended, as if in the act of straining to discharge wind ; some 
paw with their feet, often lie down, but quickly rise up again. 

My cattle were carefully watched, when red clover was first 
given to them : therefore nothing more was necessary, when the 
symptoms appeared, but to drive them up and down the lanes tole- 
rably smartly; at the same time, taking care to avoid the injury 
which might arise from rapid motion. This soon caused them to 
discharge much wind ; when their flanks became lank, the danger 
ceased for the present : care, however, was found necessary, as 
some of them would, immediately after they had been relieved, eat 
a sufficiency to produce the disease again. 

It appeared in my practice, that the greater part of the cattle 
were not subject to the least injury, from feeding freely on red clo- 
ver. That it is not the quantity, but the quality of the food, which 
produces the disease. No question, however, but an increased 
quantity, renders it much more dangerous. It would also seem, 
that but little, if any, serious injury would arise from this complaint, 
if proper care were taken, in the early stages of it. 

Some of the cattle, subject to be attected by red clover, require 
great attention, for a considerable time ; while others, equally af- 
fected in the beginning, soon become habituated to it. 

That the quantity has only a secondary influence in this disease, 
was evident, for so soon as my cattle had discharged the wind, their 
flanks became lanker than they were previously to eating the clo- 
ver ; this could not have happened, if they had eaten very freely, 
previously to its being discovered that they were affected by the 
complaint. 

1 once had a pair of oxen hoven by the little clover they gather- 
ed while a carter was dropping out his loads of manure, into heaps, 
on a field, where this grass, mixed with timothy, was quite young 
and low. 

Many cattle were killed in Maryland, while I lived there, by 
incautiously turning them into fields, to eat off' the husk?, which 
remained in the stalk, after the other fodder, and corn, had been 
gathered. 

One of my neighbour's cows was, lately, very badly hoven, and 
seemed to be in very imminent danger ; she was very quickly cured, 
by a drench of one pint of melted hog's lard : it is said, that a 



aio 

like quantity of sweet oil, or fresh butter melted, will answer the 
same purpose. 

Some gentlemen assert, that an acre of grass has soiled from 
five to six head of cattle ; there seems no reason to doubt but this 
may have happened, where the soil has been very rich, well set with 
grass, and the season favourable to the growth of every crop ; I 
believe, however, that the advantages arising from this valuable 
practice have been too favourably represented, and that this has 
done vastly more harm than good. 

New practitioners are discouraged, and often too hastily aban- 
don a practice, when they find the advantages to be derived from it 
have been overrated : more especially, if difficulties are necessa- 
rily attached to it, which had not been previously explained to 
■them ; and which they had not been accustomed to encounter. 
This is not all, for when practice has been overrated, and its dis- 
advantages not explained, those who are opposed to it readily 
refute a part, which, unquestionably, in common, more or less 
invalidates the whole. 

My grass grounds, whether good, bad, or indifferent, were cut for 
my cattle, as either necessity urged, or prudence seemed to suggest ; 
therefore, no experience of mine will admit me to state, correctly, 
the quantity of grass that may be saved by soiling; but it is cer- 
tainly very great : still, as I do not wish to mislead, it is proper to 
observe, that after giving very much attention to this interesting 
subject, and attentively reviewing what happened in my practice, 
from the commencement of it, 1 am clearly convinced, that cattle 
which have not been early habituated to this mode of management, 
will not generally fatten so freely, or give as much milk, as they 
v/ill do, when suffered to run at large, in good pastures : conse- 
quently, it would seem, that no farmer should enter extensively 
into this practice, unless he rears his cattle in the yard, or pur- 
chases them while they are very young. 

It is by no means improbable, that rearing the cattle in the yard 
will be equally as advantageous to the farmer as buying them of the 
drover, who purchases them of the back-woods cultivators, at low 
rates. Calves, while young, take too much exercise in pasture to 
fatten freely, or grow so fast, as when confined.* It also would 
seem that the nutritive properties of the older grasses will hasten 
their growth, and a ready access to shelter from sun and rain will 
also be favourable to them. 

When the farmer rears his own stock, the value of the animals 
may be greatly increased by rearing from such breeds as are dis- 
posed to fatten freely, and milk well. The form, activity, and 
strength of his oxen, may also be greatly improved. The trouble 
and loss arising from mischievo'js bulls, when suffered to run at 

• Animals, while young, delight in rapid exercise, and a continuation of it, 
which seems to be opposed to lattening. 



811 

large in pastures, may be likewise avoided, by fencing the yard so 
that it cannot be broken by them. This animal, however, is gene- 
rally quiet among his own cows in the yard : but if strange cows 
be brought to him, he will break the fence to pieces when they are 
taken away, unless it be very strong. The same will happen if the 
yard be so situated that he can readily see the strange cows, which 
commonly frequent the open grounds without the farm. 

Some gentlemen tell us, that cattle fatten better in stables and 
yards than they do in fields. This may, and, I believe, will happen, 
if they have been reared in stables or yards ; if, however, they have 
been accustomed to run at large, it will be found, (unless others are 
more fortunate than I have generally been,) that some of them are 
so much opposed to the best grass, when cut and given to them in 
the yard, that they will not fatten at all. 

The cause of this seems to be evident. The previous habit of 
the animal is entirely opposed to this sudden change, from being 
accustomed to run at large, and gather such plants, or such parts of 
them, as are most agreeable to its taste. Experience, also, teaches 
us, that men, as well as the inferior animals, when deprived of that 
portion of liberty to which they have been accustomed, repine, and 
in some instances, actually die, from this cause alone. We like- 
wise see, that the poor man's calf thrives, grows, and finally gives 
an abundance of milk, when it is principally fed with the scraps 
and slops originating in, and carefully saved by, his family, if they 
be industrious and economical. On the contrary, the fine, stately 
cow, reared in the luxuriant pastures of the wealthy grazier, com- 
monly rejects this kind of provision, and is, in some instances, so 
much opposed to it, that actual starvation will scarcely induce her 
to eat this nutritive, but, at the same time, very cheap food. It fre- 
quently costs but little more than the trivial attention necessary to 
saving it, and the comfort and happiness of a poor man's family, ia 
the country, depends so much on this single branch of economy, 
that they seldom prosper unless due attention be given to it. 

Cattle are disgusted with grass which has been lying too long be- 
fore them, in the savers, or cribs ; neither do they like it if it has 
been cut and left in the field until it be withered, or heated, which 
speedily takes place. If the number of cattle be considerable, the 
whole of the grass necessary for the day cannot be cut, and brought 
to them in time, in the morning. It is, therefore, best to cut late in 
the evening, a small quantity, to last them until the food for the 
day can be cut and brought in. This small quantity will not heat 
through the night if it lies in swath, and should be given to the cat- 
tle so soon after daylight as it can be done. After which, the re- 
mainder of the food for the day should be cut and brought in with 
despatch. In the evening a sufficiency of fresh cut grass should be 
given to last them through the night.* Previously to feeding in the 

• I believe, however, that the fattening of the cattle in yards, or stalls, wouK-! 
be g^i'eatly expedited if the grasses were cut fresh frequently throuf^h the da; . 



312 

morning and evening, all the old grass should be removed from the 
savers, and made into hay ; for none need be lost : still, it is best 
not to have much of this remaining. Experience, however, will 
soon teach the provident farmer the necessary quantity so well, 
that but little will be left to be removed. But as some gentlemen 
of talents have urged the waste of grass, when cattle are fed in the 
yard, the reputation of the system requires that this complaint 
should be silenced, by convincing them that a handful need not be 
lost. The grass which the cattle reject, in consequence of having 
breathed too long over it, will make as good hay as any other of 
equal quality, if proper attention be given to the curing of it. 

In the year 1810, beside soiling forty head of cattle and seven 
horses, the following products were obtained from eighty -five acres 
of land, to wit : 

1730 bushels of potatoes, 
817 do. Indian corn, 
2221 do. barley, 
69 tons of hay, 
1391 loads of manure, of 32 cubic feet each. 
The manure, however, was the product of winter as well as of sum- 
mer feeding. The above produce, without enumerating the value 
of the dung, was estimated at 2,799 dollars. 

One acre of rich ground, well set with grass, will fatten an ox of 
considerable size when pastured. I, however, doubt much whether 
the whole eighty -five acres would have been found sufficient to pas- 
lure the stock that was soiled, unless the season had greatly fa- 
voured the growth of the grasses. 

So far as my judgment extended, it would have required at least, 
on an average, two acres of soil no richer than mine was, to have 
fattened each one of them. If this opinion be correct, and I fully 
believe it is, the produce stated above was clearly gained by soiling, 
except the hay, which, if the grounds had been found sufficient to 
fatten the cattle, might, in consequence of an early sale of that 
part of them which were the most thrifty, have been mowed after 
them. 

One man, and a boy thirteen or fourteen years old, with a horse 
and an Irish car, (a low wheeled cart is better,) were found fully 
sufficient to soil the above mentioned horses and cattle. If the 
grasses had generally stood thick on the ground, they could have 
readily provided for many more. The boy harnessed and <lrove out 
the horse, while the man was mowing : also, assisted him in raking 
up the grass, loading, and feeding the cattle. Both the man and 
boy should be furnished with loose over coats, well calculated to 

and given to them in snail quantities, and that this might go far towards In- 
ducing even those who seem most opposed to this mode of feeding, to eat and 
fatten more freely. But of this I can say nothing certain, as my cattle were 
never fed in that way. The difference, however, would be little ; provided 
enough of cattle were kept to employ the constant attention of one man and 
a boy. 



313 

turn off rain. Neither of them ought to dread wet weather. It 
will, however, not be necessary to expose them to stormy and very 
heavy rains, as, when those occur the cattle may be fed with well 
cured first crop hay. 

It might be useful to give them, frequently, a little well cured 
straw, with brine sprinkled over it in sufficient quantity to induce 
them to eat freely of it. This would correct too loose a habit of 
body, which often seems to procrastinate fattening when cattle are 
grazing, or fed in the yard on grass. I believe, however, that the 
older grasses fed to them, in the yard, purge them less than the 
young and tender shoots which they prefer when grazing in the 
field. 

Salt appears to be actually necessary to domestic animals, if 
their stomachs have been long habituated to it, much like whiskey 
or brandy is to us, or opium to a Turk: therefore, it seems best foe 
the farmer to give it to them ; especially if he is fattening them. 

When hay has been badly cured, or when it is rough, spongy and 
light, or when cattle, horses, or sheep are kept on any ordinary 
food, which nothing but necessity can justify giving to them, salt- 
ing such food induces them to eat more freely of it: consequently, 
in cases of this kind, salt is both useful and economical. It is also 
useful when cattle reject good food because they have not been 
accustomed to it. This has several times occurred in the course 
of my practice. They have also rejected with me food that they 
had formerly been accustomed to, but had not eaten for some 
time previously to its being refused by them. Last fall when I 
commenced feeding with dried fodder, the corn tops and husks 
were rejected by a pair of oxen until it appeared that they would 
prefer starving to eating them. 

I do not allow salt to be given to any of my live stock except 
those which have been long used to it, or as medicine, or to pro- 
mote an appetite on particular occasions. As soon as some brine, 
made for the purpose, was sprinkled over the fodder, the oxen ate 
freely of it, and became so well reconciled to it, that notwithstand- 
ing the sprinkling of the brine was omitted in the course of three 
or four days, they have continued to feed as freely on the tops and 
husks through the winter as they do on good hay; which is never 
given to them except when they happen to be working at a dis- 
tance from the farm. 

It is urged that cattle, &c. are so fond of salt that they will en- 
counter great risk to obtain it: therefore, it must be useful to them. 
It should, however, be recollected, that an Indian (and too many 
white men also) will do the same to obtain whiskey, although it 
does them more harm than good. No question but whiskey, when 
used on particular and proper occasions, is a very valuable article, 
and the same may be said of giving salt to cattle: but to render either 
practice extensively useful, the edge of the salutary effects pro- 
duced by these stimulants should not be blunted by the habitual 
use of them. 

R r 



314 

If I am correctly informed, British fanners have not been long 
hi the practice of salting cattle or slieep. Yet that country has 
been a great while celebrated for rearing line cattle and slieep. It 
is urged in opposition to this, that Britain is an island, surrounded 
by the sea, therefore salt is not necessary there. The interior 
parts, however, of that country cannot dei'ive so much advantage 
from this circumstance as situations much nearer to our sea coast, 
where salt is considered equally as necessary for cattle as it is in. 
the interior of this country, unless rivers or creeks impregnated 
with more or less salt happen to run so near to the farms that the 
cattle may have ready access to them. 

Farmers will, of course, do what they may consider best. I 
would, however, advise them not to use salt for their cattle, &c. 
except in cases where it is evidently useful. The contrary prac- 
tice clearly makes against its salutary effects when occasions hap- 
pen which would render the use of it highly beneficial. The free 
use of salt is sometimes a serious expense: especially when land 
carriage greatly enhances the price of it, and the cultivator is poor. 
The profit arising from agriculture greatly depends on a judicious 
economy extended to all its expenditures: therefore, the establish- 
ment of any useless sinking fund, should not be sanctioned. 

Small as the item of salt for cattle, &c. may at first sight ap- 
pear, especially when it happens to be cheap, if it were possible to 
sum up the amount of money annually expended in this country 
for that purpose, it would be found astonishingly great. 

As we, however, levy this useless tax on ourselves, we do not 
complain, unless we happen to believe that any act of our govern- 
ment has caused an increase in the price of the article. 

If the farmer will omit salting a part of his younger live stock, 
and salt the remainder, as usual, he may readily determine how he 
ought to act. As this experiment will cost him neither labour nor 
money, he cannot err widely by giving it a fair and impartial trial. 

Some gentlemen have recommended straw to be cut up with the 
grasses used for soiling. This will be found an expensive business. 
No-advantage that can be derived from it will pay the expense. 

When, however, horses or oxen are kept so closely at labour 
that they have little or no time to eat hay or grass through the day, 
and are fed with rich food, such as chopped rye, maize, &c. it 
seems best to mix straw finely cut with it, as the woody fibre in- 
troduced in this way prevents injury from the rich food. But when 
cattle are fattening on grain the woody fibre introduced by eating 
hay or grass given to them in the yard or stall answers the same 
purpose. 

Many Pennsylvania farmers cut much straw to be mixed with 
the grain or chopstulF given to their cattle, &c. They consider the 
practice very economical, as it saves a good deal of hay. They 
would, however, soon find, if tliev paid for cutting the straw as fine 
and well as they generally cut it, that if a proper valuation be placed 
on it for litter, the hay costs them by far the least money. No 



315 

question but they will agree with me that their own labour is quite 
as valuable as any other person's who does no more work. Also, 
that hay is vastly more nutritive than straw, and far better calcu- 
lated to keep the bowels of the animals fed on it cool and open;: 
the straw, in consequence of the little nutritive matters contained 
in it, being very binding. 

The mistaken system of farming in England, induces many of 
the cultivators there to feed much straw to cattle. They are, how- 
ever, compelled to make up the deficiency of nutriment in the straw, 
by feeding turnips with it : therefore, their practice should not in- 
fluence us. The value of the straw for litter, added to cultivation, 
and extra dung necessary for the turnip crop, make that mode of 
feeding vastly more expensive than hay. 

Too many farmers in this country, feed their cattle principally 
on straw, through the winter. They ought, however, to have known, 
that it contains but little nutriment. It is an obvious fact, that 
cattle which are kept in this way, are generally but little better in 
the spring, than skeletons covered with hide. Were it not for the 
little hay and corn fodder given to them, it is probable that the hide 
would be the principal profitable remainder of the farmer's stock, if 
nature had not wisely ordered that some few animals should possess 
sufficient hardihood to encounter hardships and privations, which 
the generality of the class to which they belong, cannot endure. 
These degenerate into a small but very hardy race, capable of living 
where larger cattle would perish with hunger, or by the diseases 
originating in poverty. Bad provision, ill usage and neglect, seem 
to be the principal causes of most of the diseases to which domesti- 
cated animals are subject. 

Notwithstanding the great advantages that may be derived from 
soiling, it would seem that it cannot be generally practised even in. 
the populous parts of this country. The quantity of cleared ground 
is more than double as much as the population is capable of culti- 
vating properly, without introducing the additional labour which 
would be required if soiling were generally practised. 

The farm yard manure acquired by soiling, and that introduced 
by the roots of the grasses, create, in the course of a single round 
of crops, such an immense improvement in the soil, that after the 
hay harvest commences, (which is great in consequence of the grass 
saved by this practice,) an almost perpetual harvest ensues until 
the corn is cribbed. 

Each crop is heavy in proportion to the ground occupied by it. 
The labour greatly exceeds what would be readily imagined by 
those who have not observed the practice : still it may or ought to 
be partially introduced ; especially by wealthy farmers, who have 
many workers in their own families. Also by those who have but 
little land in proportion to the labour they can readily obtain from 
their children, &c. 

It should, however, be well remembered, that success is not to be 
expected, unless a full supply of green grasses, proper for this pur- 



31t> 

pose, have been provided. The reader wilf find, that in my descrip- 
tion of the grasses, care has been taken to point out such as appear- 
ed in the course of my practice, best calculated to promote the in- 
terest of soiling: also, the very great trouble and perplexity occa- 
sioned by red clover, in consequence of the cattle and horses being 
salivated by the second and third crops of this grass. 

Every farmer certainly should soil his working cattle and horses, 
whether he may or may not enter into the general practice of soil- 
ing. A very small extent of ground will be sufficient for this pur- 
pose. This may lie so near to his barn, that the trouble will be 
little more, if as much, as going to the pastures after them. The 
grass and rich dung, saved by this practice, will be very valuable to 
him. 

The size of the yard should be in proportion to the number of 
cattle, or the manure will be scattered too wide. A small portion 
of his cattle yard may be fenced oft' for this purpose. A division 
should be made between the horses and cattle, unless the farmer is 
well assured they will not quarrel. 

An open shed will defend them and their food from the sun and 
rain. 1 would advise the farmer to add to those horses and work- 
ing cattle, one cow, to determine the difference between the quan- 
tity of milk obtained from soiling, and that from the pasture grounds : 
also an ox, to compare the progress of fattening in the yard with 
that in the field : but such animals as do not appear opposed to the 
practice of soiling, should be selected. I would also advise him to 
add a couple of calves, and the same number of pigs. This would 
show the advantage to be obtained from rearing such animals in the 
yard as were designed to be fattened in it; provided they are not 
suffered from first to last, to obtain any part of the food by grazing. 
A few sheep might also be introduced in the same way. 

I have soiled hogs, but the experiment was badly conducted : 
therefore cannot determine any thing certainly respecting them; 
yet believe, from my general observation of the habits of that ani- 
mal, that they may be profitably reared on grass, given to them in 
yards or pens. 

Some of the hogs soiled by me had been accustomed to live 
through the summer on red clover, gathered by them in the fields : 
still, they did not appear to eat freely of it in the yard. Whether 
this proceeded from mismanagement or change of habit cannot be 
determined by me. 

It is, however, very obvious, that pigs reared in pens will eat 
freely of almost any weed or grass gathered from gardens and fed 
to them in pens. It would therefore seem that they might be early 
taught to eat freely of almost any kind of good grass given to them 
in yards or pens. The second and third crops of clover may have 
been injurious to them in my practice, which continued only part 
of one summer and fall. 

A few sheep were soiled one summer on my farm; but they ap- 
peared to claim so little attention that they were too often ne- 



317 

glected by those who brought them in the grass. I did not, how- 
ever, observe that they were opposed to the practice, and believe 
they might be profitably fed in this way. 

A yard may be readily so constructed as to defend them from 
dogs, which seem to be more destructive to them in the older set- 
tlements than wolves are in the back-woods. The wolf does not 
often venture in the day near enough to the farmer's house to kill 
his sheep, and they are housed at night. 

I have heard of no sheep being killed here by any other dogs 
but those belonging to the town. The cause of this seems evident: 
the farmer in the back-woods is compelled to keep a few sheep, as 
he cannot readily clothe his family unless this be done. 

The dog, while young, is very tond of worrying the sheep, as he 
meets with no opposition but from the ram, and seldom from him. 
The farmer being well aware of the consequence unless this habit 
of the pup be broken, he is severely chastised as often as he is 
caught running after them. At length he becomes so fearful of 
committing this transgression that it would be found difficult to 
entice him to seize a sheep. 

From this, and various other circumstances, it would appear, 
that if our legislators would lay a very heavy tax on every dog be- 
longing to those who do rot keep sheep on the premises where the 
dog resided, also on every dog more than one kept even there, we 
should seldom hear complaints of sheep being killed by dogs: pro- 
vided the amount of the tax be sufficiently great, and annually 
doubled on those who prefer paying it to parting with their dogs. 

As dogs can be of but little use except to farmers or butchers, 
there could be no reasonable complaint against this tax. 

The fox hound seems to be the most voracious, and the least 
useful. Every man that is seen riding through any other enclosed 
grounds than his own after a pack of hounds, should forfeit and 
pay a sufficient sum to induce him to abandon this destructive 
practice.* 

I was brought up in a small country town, and well remember 
the havock the dogs made among the sheep. They will assemble 
in packs and kill a whole flock of sheep in one night. 

The dog, however, is a very sagacious animal, and readily taught. 
Hence it is that a butcher's dog v/ill lie all night in his master's 
slaughterhouse, and, instead of devouring the meat, he will cou- 
rageously defend it, if he has been properly taught. 

The helpless timidity of sheep makes it more desirable to feed 
them in the yard than any other animal. It also appears that their 
constitution is not opposed to this practice. The little care that 
was too generally taken of them on the eastern shore of Maryland 
while I resided there, caused many of the ewes to die soon after 
they had yeaned. In this case the lambs were commonly reared 

• In tliis case, also, the fine should be doubled every time it is repeated. 



318 

m the negro quarters, and, when well fed, they generally prospered 
better there than any where else. 

From the daring intrepidity which the house lamb acquired by 
Jiving among the negroes in the quarter, it appears, that, notwith- 
standing the usual mode of domesticating that animal causes it to 
become timid and helpless, a more intimate acquaintance with man 
gives him confidence in his strength and agility. They commonly 
become so wickedly mischievous, if fully and well fed, that it is 
often found necessary to kill them to prevent some of the family 
from being seriously maimed by them. 

This, and other obvious reasons, induce me to believe that when 
this animal is wild, and his security depends on his own prowess 
and sagacity, instinct teaches him when it will be proper to fight, 
and also when, and to where, he ought to retreat; and that he 
escapes at least as readily as do those aaimals who are much more 
timid and helpless than he. 

We see that notwithstanding a multitude of timid and appa- 
rently defenceless animals are continually pursued and destroyed 
by others, who prey on them, they still exist in sufficient numbers 
to furnish food for those who destroy them. In fact, if this were 
not the case, and the weaker links in the chain of animal creation 
could be readily annihilated by the stronger, the whole chain would 
soon be destroyed, as the stronger, very generally, depend on the 
weaker for their support. 

It is true that when man, the lord of inferior animals, encroaches 
on nature's domains, many of the links of her chain, which binds 
the great whole together, are broken to pieces. No bad conse- 
f[uences, however, arise from this new state of things, if he supply 
the deficiency by introducing a sufficient number of domesticated 
animals, and the necessary quantity of proper vegetation, and care- 
fully spread the manure obtained from these never failing re- 
sources over the soil. As the contrary, however, too generally 
happens, we have to lament that poverty of soil, and all the evils 
which naturally arise from it, too commonly mark the footsteps of 
civilized man. 

It is in the forests, and other wilds unfrequented by man, except 
in his savage state, that we may best learn the rudiments of natu- 
ral philosophy. If these were better knovvn, many of the theoreti- 
cal errors which are so very injurious to agriculture, would disap- 
pear. Art, as well as error, have so completely defaced nature, in 
old, populous settlements, that those who travel to obtain know- 
ledge of her, should traverse the wilds of America, in place of 
seeking this knowledge where it is not to be found. 

But to return. The ram, in the apparently very unequal contest 
with the bull, has often fairly beat him, and in some instances, ac- 
tually killed him on the field of battle. There is now on my farm 
a merino ram, which has become daring in consequence of his in- 
tercourse with man. lie frequently beats my oxen, although one of 
thf^m is a great fighter. Lest he might eventually kill them, it has 



319 

been considered best not to admit him into the yard where they are 
kept. He has, also, several times knocked down a large house do"-, 
which stays on the place. 

As the ram is often equal in combat with horned cattle, and we 
do not hear that the latter are killed by wolves, although no care is 
taken to prevent it, why should we suppose that a wild, active, en- 
terprising flock of sheep, (in which there would be, of course, a 
considerable proportion of rams,) incapable of that defence, and se- 
cure mode of retreat, which nature has implanted by instinct in 
every animal. 

Want of practice weakens instinct in domesticated animals, so 
much that they seem incapable of bringing it into full, active use, 
except on such occasions as habit has rendered familiar to them. 

The supposed natural timidity and incapacity of sheep to defend 
themselves, when wild, have induced some gentlemen to trace their 
origin to much larger and more enterprising animals, whose form 
bears some resemblance to that of the sheep, although, on the 
whole, they differ very widely. 

We might, however, as well suppose, that, as there is a greater 
affinity between the domesticated cat, wild cat, and panther, that 
the latter had degenerated into the wild cat; and that the wild cat, 
in consequence of being domesticated, and fully and regularly fed, 
had degenerated into our harmless and very useful rat catcher : not- 
withstanding the precarious and very scanty support which wild 
animals obtain by prowling through the forest, and other wilds, is 
exactly calculated to abridge the size of them, while the plentiful 
and regular supply provided for domesticated animals, is well cal- 
culated to increase their .growth. Yet the origin of the sheep has 
been traced to the mouflon, or argila, although the weight of one of 
them has been estimated at between six and seven hundred pounds. 

Nature sometimes sports, and if proper advantage be taken of 
this, the properties of animals may be much altered for the better. 
But this supposed alteration in the sheep could not be effected, as 
it amounts to an entire renovation, or a new creation ; and is 
equally as contrary to nature as is the erroneous opinion that wheat 
changes, and becomes darnel, or cheat. 

The horse, either from his being habituated to confinement, or 
from some other cause, appears to be much less incommoded than 
cattle, with the change introduced by soiling. He will eat tolerably 
freely, even of second crop clover, given to him in the yard. Still, 
the effect produced by second and third crop clover is much more 
evidently seen in horses than cattle. The water runs in streams 
from the mouth of the horse, while we seldom see more of the com- 
plaint in cattle, than that while they are chewing their cud, froth 
gathers round their mouths, and drops slowly from them. 

I shall never forget the effect that second crop clover produces 
on the different constitutions of both horses and cattle. Some few 
of each will retain their flesh, while the greater number fall awav 
greatly. 



320 

Having purchased of a drover, from the back-woods, a well look- 
ing pair of young horses, both did well on red clover, given to them 
in the yard, until salivation commenced. After this, one of them 
seemed to hold his own, while the other fell away, greatly. Being 
determined, if it were possible, to habituate the sufferer to this 
kind of food, a few weeks reduced him so much that his life seemed 
to be in danger. It required some considerable time, feeding on 
grain and the speargrasses, to restore him to his original plight. 

Perhaps the merit of convertible husbandry, united with soiling, 
may be better illustrated by a comparative statement of the crops 
grown in the year 1811, with those sold to me by Mr. Shriver, and 
grown by him the same year that he sold the premises to me. His 
crops were considered large, and great efforts had been made by him 
to make them so. Both his crops and mine are rated at the same 
average prices, in the nest chapter. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



The merits of convertible husbandry, united with soiling-, explained and illus- 
trated by a comparative statement of crops. On winter fattenin.sj cattle. 
Reason assigned why any given space of grass grounds will furnish much 
more food for cattle when the grass is fed to them in the yard than if they 
were pastured on it. On the use of oxen in place of horses. 



Statement of Mr. Shriver^s crops. 
64 acres, 242^ bushels of oats at 43 cents, 

12| do. of wheat, barley and oat tailings, mixed 
sold for - - - 

197| do. of potatoes at 50 cents, 
36| do. of wheat at 81.75 
5^ do. of buckwheat at 50 centS) 
9 tonsof hay at S17.50 - - - 

5 do. of corn fodder at gS.OO 
226i bushels of rye at 80 cents, - 
155 do. of barley at 90 cents, - - - 

250 do. of Indian corn at 60 cents, 
8 acres rented to a widow lady, with the old farm house, 
and an old barn principally used for pasturing one 
horse and three cows, 
2^ acres rented to a negro man, with a small house, 
31 1 acres in pasture, woods, yards and roads. The negro 
had the garden, which is included in his 2| acres. 



} 



8104.27 

'- 5.83 
88.50 

- 64.31 

- 2.75 
157.50 

- 40.00 
181.20 
139.50 
150.00 

100.00 

29.16 



106 acres. 



S5 1.063.02 



Statement of my crops. 

13^ acres, 277 bushels of wheat* at » 1. 75 - - g484.75 

25 tons of superior stubble crop hay at 87.50 187.50 

15 acres, 1086 bushels of Indian corn at 60 cents, - 651.60 

196 do. of barley at 90 cents, - - 176.40 

23 tons of corn fodder at 88.00 - - 184.00 

^acre, 263 bushels of potatoes at 50 cents, - 131.50 

56| acres, 130 tonsof hay at 817.50 - - - 2275.00 

Received for soiling horses, - - - 72.35 

Sundries sold at market, - - - 37.10 

20 acres in roads, gardens, woods, &c. 



106 acres. 



84.200.20 



• This crop promised to be very large, but was very greatly injured by mil» 
dew. It, however, was sold for the above sum, delivered at my barn. 

3s 



822 

As cornstalks, straw, &c. are seldom estimated by the full bred 
farmer, in the valuable amount of his crops, unless he happen to 
live near a town, where the straw may be sold, I have omitted them 
in the foregoing statement of my crop, lest the perpetual plougher 
and cropper might believe I wished to swell the amount. This 
makes it proper to remark, that when regular farming accounts 
are kept, the manure account should be debited to the crops of 
small grain and corn, for the straw and stalks. The latter has 
been considered by too many, as an article which costs labour, either 
to burn them, or plough them up. When the groun.ds, however, 
are properly prepared for crops, they will be found by those who 
try the experiment, fully equal, if not more valuable, than straw, 
for littering the cattle yard. 

It appears from the statement formed above, tha£ nearly a four- 
fold improvement was accomplished on this farm in the course of 
five years, from the practice that had been pursued ; though many 
very'injurious errors occured in the course of that practice. Tiiese 
greatly retarded the improvement of the soil, and were equally in- 
jurious to the products of it ; especially of my fallow crops. 

Every farmer who is in the habit of estimating the expense of 
cultivation, and that of taking his crops to market, may form a to- 
lerably correct opinion of the clear profit which might be obtained 
from the produce, if subjected to his management. 

But unless he were acquainted with the soil, on which these 
crops were grown, and also with the system of improvement, he 
could not readily form an opinion of the probable future annual in- 
crease of crops arising from an increased fertility of the grounds, 
and no calculation of mine can determine this sufficiently correct 
to hazard an estimate. I am, however, very confident that the fer- 
tility of the soil would have been very much increased, if the same 
system of management had been pursued during another round of 
crops, which would have terminated in the course of five years. 

It was very obvious that the grass grounds were generally very 
deficient in fertility. This was made the more manifest by compar- 
ing the vegetation generally, with such spots as had been accident- 
ally more highly enriched, and also with a part of the ground which 
had not been long enough cleared from its wood to be so much re- 
duced by ploughing and cropping, as the land which had been longer 
cultivated. 

Soiling, united with convertible husbandry, may be practised 
with equal success by every farmer; provided his cultivation be li- 
mited to an extent of clear ground, which will be consistent with 
his certain resources to cultivate it properly; unless where a range 
outside of his cleared grounds, furnishes a sufficiency of pasture 
fur hi - live stock. 

If Jie cultivator be not in debt, and possess a pair of horses or a 
yoke of oxen, two milch cows, four young cattle from one to four 
years old, six sheep, and rear as many hogs, as are sufficient for 
the use of his family, he may, with this stock, safely encounter 



323 

twenty acres of cleared ground, and practise soiling, united to con- 
vertible husbandry; provided, hiinseir, witli the aid of the workers 
in his fatnily, or tliose he can readily hire, and has money to pay, 
are sufficient to cultivate that quantity of land properly: especially 
as his live stock will increase with th« increased fertility of the 
soil, if he give proper attention to that interesting portion of his 
management. 

If the rotation of crops commonly practised by me, be adopted, four 
acres will be annually in manured fallow crops, four in wheat and 
other small grain, and the remaining twelve in grass. 

When the farmer's stock is kept in well constructed yards, 
profusely littered, the quantity of manure exceeds credibility. Al- 
though the greater part of that which is gathered through the win- 
ter, consists of vegetable substances, they are well saturated with 
the rich juices of the cattle yard, which arc lost by the improvident 
farmer. This mass being ploughed under the soil previously to fer- 
mentation, but little can be lost, if the crops be properly cultivated; 
and the roots of the grasses ploughed under with it, add greatly to 
the amount. The second and third crops of the grasses, when 
soiling is practised, may be more profitably mowed and fed green, 
or in hay, to the live stock, than ploughed under for manure. 

Twenty acres of ground will appear, to many American farmers, 
too little, even for those who actually do not possess the means to 
cultivate ten acres properly, if soiling be practised. If they, how- 
ever, would attentively compare the foregoing statements, some of 
them may alter their opinions; beside other things, which should 
induce them to do this, they will find the amount of products from 
the fallow crops grown by me, on fifteen acres of ground only, ex- 
ceeded in value, the whole produce grown by Mr. Snriver, seventy- 
eight dollars, which sum would, in most situations, pay the rent of 
fifteen acres of land. They will also see, by reverting to my de- 
scription of the cultivation of these fallow crops, that the corn crop, 
was very injudiciously managed. 

The quantity of straw, and corn stalks, furnished by the crops, 
enumerated in the foregoing statement, was estimated at fifty four 
and a half tons. These dried vegetable substances, together with 
the leaves raked from the woods, and other offal vegetable matters 
that may be gathered, will, when saturated well with the juices of 
the cattle yard, form a great weight, as well as bulk of manure. 
If we suppose the-offal vegetable matter, gathered in 1811, suffici- 
ent, if the cattle, &c. were properly managed, to make fourteen 
loads of manure, of thirty-two cubic feet each, which were the ge- 
neral size of my loads, it would cost the farmer thirty cents per 
load in the yard, and seven and a half cents per load for hauling it 
out to the field, or five hundred and twenty-two dollars for the 
whole, rating the leaves at the cost of raking and hauling, and the 
straw and corn stalks at three dollars per ton : also, charging the 
manure account, with the wages and board of the man and boy, and 
the labour done by the horse, employed in brinscing in the grass 



324 

Thus wc see that manure is an expensive article, whether it be 
bought, or made on the farm. 

Some writers on husbandry say, that the profit derived from the 
sale of the cattle, should pay for the manure. It would seem, how- 
ever, that if the farmer gets paid for the hay consumed by them 
through the ^vinter, and the grass eaten by tnem during summer, 
that where hay sells at a good price, he must be an excellent judge 
of the value of store cattle, and their disposition to fatten, and also 
meet with a favourable time for purchasing them. 

But if only the interest on the value of the land, employed to 
furnish the hay and grass, together with the taxes, and other neces- 
sary expense, and the cost of cutting, making, and securing the 
hay be estimated, it will greatly alter the estimate formed on the 
value of that article where it sells high ; for, if seasons, good and 
bad, for making hay, be averaged, it maybe cut, cured, and secured 
for two dollars and fifty cents per ton, if the management be good ; 
still, if the farmer's or grazier's calculations be formed on these fa- 
vourable principles, the expense of an ox, of an averaged size, will 
be found considerable, where land sells high ; besides his propor- 
tion of the charges, enumerated above, he is also chargeable with 
an interest on his first cost, and on the money expended on making 
the hay, &c. with a percentage for the risk of his life, together 
with some other expenses, which vary so much in different situa- 
tions, that they cannot be readily enumerated. 

It clearly appears, however, notwithstanding the expenditures 
and risk naturally attached to keeping an extensive stock of cattle, 
that those farmers who are in the habit of doing it, if their manage- 
ment be good, always prosper much better, than those who pursue a 
contrary practice. The cause of this is evident; though a loss may 
sometimes occur in the sale of them, the advantage derived from 
their manure, more than overbalances it. 

It is more than probable, that winter fattening cattle in stalls, 
often terminates in loss: still, many of the most thrifty farmers in 
Pennsylvania practise it ; the same is also done by some of the 
best farmers in England. A gentleman there, who was extensively 
engaged in that business, has published, that he sustained a consi- 
derable loss on the cattlefattened in this way ; yet he considered 
the practice, on the whole, the most beneficial he could adopt; and 
statements formed from regular accounts, seemed to determine, that 
the profit and improvement of his farm was great. 

If this gentleman, however, had practised soiling, united with 
convertible husbandry, which he, and every other farmer, possessing 
sufficient capital might do, where population will admit it to be 
d(ine, he could have obtained manure enough, on far better terms. 

In fact, it would appear, that any system of management, which 
insures a certain loss, should be either amended, or abandoned : 
especially, as a well directed convertible husbandry alone, will, if 
the management be good, furnish a sufficiency of manure, without 
a general loss. 



325 

When (hrifty cattle have been well fattened with grass, good 
hay, with but little grain, will gradually improve them through 
the winter, if the management be good. It is by no means improba- 
ble, that ways and means might be devised, by which stall feeding 
through the winter would be profitable. My experience, however, 
has been so limited in this practice, that 1 am not sufficiently ac« 
quainted with the subject to point them out. 

It generally happens, that the litter is so much exhausted through 
the winter, that a deficiency of it, joined with the continued rains, 
which sometimes occur during summer, cause the yard to become 
very wet and miry. The cattle are greatly injured, unless dry 
places are prepared for them, to stand and lie down in ; this accom- 
modation, however, may be readily provided, by raising the front of 
the floors of the sheds about six inches above the level of the yard, 
sloping them graduallyhigher, to the back part of the shed, so that 
the urine, and water from driving rains and snow, may readily run 
oft'. A compact clay may be best for forming the floor of the sheds, 
but mine were made with common loose clay, taken from such 
heights in the cattle yard as ought to have been reduced ; so soon 
as thjpy were finished, and moderately rammed, a thick covering of 
litter was spread over them, and the cattle suffered to go immedi- 
ately on them; this seemed to answer well, as the litter prevented 
any injury from their feet, which soon consolidated the clay so firmly, 
that the floors required no litter until feeding with dry fodder com- 
menced in the fall ; after this, injury from frost was prevented, by 
keeping them well covered with litter. 

Here it may be proper to inform the farmer, that unless this, or 
some other provision be made, to keep the cattle dry, soiling will 
not succeed : also, that nothing short of his particular attention to 
every part of the business can insure success. There are but few, 
if any, labourers to be relied on: more especially, in a business 
which habit has not rendered familiar to them ; particularly if it be 
so little understood that the bad consequences arising from their 
neglect may be readily transferred to a defect in the system of 
management. 

If they be not carefully overlooked, that method which renders 
the labour least troublesome to them, will be pursued. As it is easier 
to procure grass with the scythe than to rake it up clean, much will 
, be left on the field. If too great a quantity happen to be cut, it 
will be found more convenient to mix it with the fresh grass, or to 
let it lie and destroy the grasses under it, than to make it into hay. 
As it requires some labour to remove the old grass from the cribs, 
and make it into hay, fresh grasses will be put in upon it. This 
seldom fails to cause the whole to become disgusting to the cattle. 
It is soon discovered by the labourer, that, in consequence of this 
negligence, the cattle eat much less. This too often induces him 
to bring in large quantities, for the express purpose of stalling them, 
that he may have less to do. When, however, he finds that the cul- 
tivator is vigilant, and making the overplus into hay increases hi« 



326 

labour, he will abandon this practice. If cattle be stalled by bein^ 
overfed with grain, or roots, it is often difficult to get them to feed 
freely after this happens. The reverse of this occurs when they are 
soiled, for if the old grass be carefully removed, and fresh grasses 
given to them, they will eat as freely as if nothing offensive to 
them had happened. 

Cattle, when running at large in the yard, do not generally get 
so dirty as when tied up in stalls. Still, they should be daily exa- 
mined, and if any dirt appears, it should be scraped off. This is 
readily done by a piece of old scythe, with a wooden handle at- 
tached to it. 

Clean and fresh water is an essential article. The watering 
troughs should be daily well washed with a broom, and the dirty 
water let out at the plug holes in the bottom of them. 

There are several very evident reasons why any given space of 
grass grounds will soil a great many more cattle than can be grazed 
on it ; perhaps, at least three times as many. Cattle loath the grasses 
defiled with their dung, and will not eat those that grow around it. 
They reject such grasses as have been trodden down by them. The 
wounds inflicted by the feet of the cattle on the grasses, greatly 
procrastinate the growth of them, as does also the cropping of those 
plants on which they feed. There are but few grasses which grow 
rapidly immediately after being mowed, although this operation, 
when properly performed, cuts them off smoothly near to the 
ground. Whereas the mouths of the cattle, if the pasture be good, 
leave more grass standing, and sadly mutilated, than is profitably 
consumed by them. The putrefaction that takes place in many of 
the wounds thus inflicted, renders the grasses obnoxious to the cat- 
tle, as well as greatly procrastinates the growth of them. 

When the grasses are used for soiling, no injury is inflicted on 
them, until they are cut oft" by the scythe. As this does not com- 
mence before the plants attain a considerable size, and the cutting 
of them progresses gradually as they are wanted ; this gives time 
for a considerable proportion of them to grow much larger than 
those which were first used, and also for many of them to attain 
their full size : therefore, as much produce is obtained by soiling as 
the grounds are capable of yielding, except the loss sustained by 
cutting a certain proportion of the plants before they have attained 
their full size, which cannot be avoided in any case, except that of 
cutting them full grown for hay. 

It is believed that the grasses, when considerably advanced in 
size, acquire a much greater proportion of rich, nutritive matters 
than when they are young. Also, that if they be cut before these 
rich matters are sufficiently formed in the plants, or after they have 
been applied in perfecting the seed, the hay is nothing like so rich 
and good as it would be, if cut when these rich matters abound iix 
the stems, leaves, and flowers of the plant. 

As observation on the economy of plants in general seems to sub- 
sitantiate this opinion, cutting the grasses for soiling cattle after 



327 

they have attained nearly and quite their^ull size, may be justly 
considered one of the principal causes which renders soiling so 
much more economical than grazing. It would also appear that 
from this cause alone we have every reason to expect that if cattle 
be early habituated to soiling, by being reared up in the yard, and 
never suffered to obtain any part of their food by grazing, that they 
would fatten much sooner, and grow much larger, than if suffered 
to run at large in pastures : also, that working cattle and horses 
fed in the yard, on the older, and, of consequence, much more nu- 
tritive grass, will require much less grain than those that are pas- 
tured. As it will require but little more time for them to eat a 
sufficiency of grass, in the yard, than is necessary for them to be- 
come cool enough to be safely fed with grain, very little, if any, of 
their labour, will be lost by this practice. 

Oxen, when hauling, or doing any thing else that gives sufficient 
rest, during the time of putting in and taking out the loads, require 
no other food through the summer but proper grasses given to them 
in the yard : provided they have been well accustomed to being fed 
in this way. 

If, however, they be hitched to the plough or harrow, or put to any 
kind of labour which demands continued motion, they require quite 
as much, or more grain, than horses, and, after they have eaten it, 
are not capable of performing any thing like as much work, if the 
weather be only tolerably warm. If it be very warm, no manage- 
ment, or feeding, will enable the ox to labour continually with tole- 
rable advantage to the farmer. 

Many gentlemen have laboured hard to prove the contrary. They 
might, however, have seen that nature had not formed the ox for 
long continued motion, everi when the weather is only moderately 
warm, unless that motion be too slow to be profitable to the cultiva- 
tor. In winter, or when the weather may happen to be cool, if he 
be well shod, and fully fed with grain, he may encounter long jour- 
nies in a team with tolerable advantage to the owner. 

As every farmer, who has a sufficiency of capital, should keep a 
full stock of cattle, he will find the ox more profitable than the 
horse; provided he rears in the yard, or purchases while very 
young,* a sufficient number of steers, and breaks them at three 
years old to the yoke, and works them moderately until they have 
attained their full size. At this age they will fatten more freely, 
and yield more tallow, than either before or after that time. 

Steers are more readily broke at two years old, and if worked 
very moderately, and well fed, will, it is said, grow the better. 
It, however, at this age, requires so many of them to drag the 
plough, that driving would be found a troublesome and expensive 
piece of business. 

• If I am not greatly mistaken, he will find the former practice much the 
best, as even an early habit is not readily subduetl, especially if that habit be 
Implanted by natiu-e. 



328 

Oxen should be taught to walk fast while working, but ought t« 
be unhitched and turned into the yard to rest and eat so soon as 
they appear to be rather flagged, and their place supplied by others 
that had been resting and eating in the yard. 

When oxen are managed in this way, the work may be nearly as 
quickly done by them, when kept on cut grass through the sum- 
mer, and good first crop hay during winter, as by horses well fed 
with grain. 

It will, however, require more than double the number of them, 
than it would of horses, to do the same work with equal despatch. 
Besides the necessary rest, those that are only three years old can- 
not endure labour so well as if they were more advanced in age, 
and had been longer accustomed to it. 

However, as the farmer who is able to do it, ought to keep an 
extensive stock of cattle,* and as it is believed by many that the 
size of the ox is increased by moderate labour if he be well fed 
and treated, there seems to be no rational objection to the multi- 
plied number of them. 

Much has been written to convince us that it is most profitable 
to fatten and sell steers while they are quite young: still, there 
seems to be every reason to believe that the growth of the ox from 
three to six or seven years old, is at least quite as profitable to the 
farmer as his growth at, or any time previously, to his attaining 
three years of his age, more especially if his labour be estimated. 

A certain loss arises on the horse, unless the cultivator com- 
mences jockey, and has sufficient skill to keep up a continued 
stock of young horses, with paying but little difference, in ex- 
changing the older for younger ones. This is, however, a practice 
that cannot be justly recommended, as the loss eventually falls on 
those who have been overreached in this disgraceful traffick. 

The harness for horses is very expensive, more especially if the 
oil, labour and mending necessary to keep them in repair be esti- 
mated. The same expensive harness has been recommended for 
the ox, and respect for Mr. Bordley's opinions induced me to give 
it a fair trial. The result clearly convinced me that the yoke and 
bows in common practice are far better : especially if a short forked 
chain (as it is called here) be extended from the tongue or chain, 
by which the cattle draw, to the yoke, and so fixed as is best cal- 
culated to prevent the oxen from taking an undue advantage of 
each other, and also to keep the yoke in the proper position on 
their necks. The whole of this costs but little, is readily put on 
and off, and requires but little, time or money to keep it in pro- 
per plight. 

• This opinion, however, should have scarcely so generally prevailed if the 
jrowth of the ox was considerably retarded by moderate work: the question, 
however, is a difficult one. Practice seems to have determined that the calf 
while young grows larger and fattens much more freely when confined than 
when suffered to run at large. The hog when closely penned up grows to a 
jreat size if he be fully fed. 



329 

The necks of oxen are sometimes galled by the yoke, especially 
while they are young. If this happen, sheepskin closely covered 
with short wool should be immediately nailed on the yoke, with the 
woolly side out; and so placed as to keep the wood entirely from 
the neck of the animal ; likewise, so that the sheepskin wilf not 
wrinkle. This has never failed, with me, to effect a cure of the 
galls, when observed before they became extensive. 

Too many of the gentlemen who have endeavoured to bring 
the ox into more general use, have greatly injured the cause they 
intended to promote, by endeavouring to convince their readers 
that the ox is equal to the horse for agricultural purposes, pro- 
vided he be properly formed and managed.* This has introduced 
the useless, expensive, and troublesome harness used for horses; 
and as one horse carts happened also to be fashionable, the ox, too, 
must be used in that way, although the usual and only rational 
plea of being placed near to the draught is not applicable to him, 
as two oxen may be more readily fixed in that way than one. It 
has, however, too often occurred, since the rage for gentleman 
farming commenced, that it matters not how erroneous the theory 
or practice may be, if it happen to be fashionable. 

Overrating the properties of the ox so much, gives those who are 
opposed to him full opportunity to demonstrate that his advocates 
are egregiously mistaken in many things urged in favour of him. 
This, of consequence, more or less invalidates the whole that has 
been advanced by them. 

The great feats which have been achieved at plough races, by ox- 
en, pampered, exercised and kept like race horses, for this purpose, 
have also excited expectations from them, that can never be reali- 
zed in practice. 

When those who have been deceived by this inconsiderate piece 
of business, discover their error, they too frequently become pre- 
judiced against this very useful animal, for no better reason, than 
that they expect more from him than he is capable of performing. 

The desire to introduce the use of oxen in the place of horses, 
has been such, that even Mr. Bordley, who must have known the 
bad effects produced on the eastern shore of Maryland, by feeding 
too much straw to horned cattle, says in his book on Husbandry, " A 
horse costs as much as four and a half oxen, and the keep of the ox, 
in summer, is grass alone ; in winter, straw : on which they maybe 
worked moderately; if hard worked, they have hay." 

An ox cannot work hard on hay, and so far from being able to 

• If it could be admitted that some gentlemen by great attention to breed- 
ing have reared oxen which do as much work as is commonly done by what 
are-called good plough horses, would not the same effort of art, if it had been 
also employed in improving the breed of plough horses, have kept up the same 
distance between the horse and ox that existed previously to any especial care 
being taken to improve the latter? It would seem that this cannot be doubted 
by those who have noticed the marked difference in horses, apparently of the 
same size, not only in quickness of motion and durabilitv, but qlso in strenff^h. 

T t 



330 

work moderately on straw, he is reduced to a skeleton if kept ou it 
without working, unless his constitution be peculiarly hardy. 

It may be useful to observe that the ox, when worked on grass, is 
sometimes scoured severely, especially if the grass be young. So 
soon as this is seen, he should be kept from grass, and fed on hay 
and oats, until the complaint be removed. If it be suffered to run 
on him, he will fall away greatly, and become too weak to labour 
hard. 

The same, also, sometimes happens when the ox is worked in win- 
ter, and fed either on turnips or potatoes with hay. The remedy 
is oats in place of these roots, until the disease be properly checked. 

The ox is naturally sluggish. However, bad and lazy drivers, 
scanty or improper food, or longer continued exercise than the ani- 
mal is capable of enduring, unless he be driven very slow, are the 
principal causes of his becoming so insufferably slow in his motion. 



CHAPTER XXXllI. 

How the Pennsylvania back-woods farmer clears his grounds. On stripping 
off the leaves from the trees in the spring. ')n the inconsiderate waste of 
timber On the system of cultivation pursued by the Pennsylvania back- 
woods farmer How the Yankee back-woods farmer clears his grounds. On 
the destruction introduced by his mode of burning the soil. How this in- 
jury is best seen On improving the poor places, which appear in grounds 
recently cleared ; and how they originate. 

W HEN the Pennsylvania farmer enters the forest, he commences 
the clearing of his grounds, by girdling the timber. If time will ad- 
mit, this is best done in August, the year preceding that in which 
he means to till the soil. The trees are more readily destroyed by 
girdling, or any other injury done to them, at that season of the year. 
This mode of management gives time for those that may happen to 
linger, to become entirely dead. Also for observing and girdling 
more eftectually, such as would either survive or linger too long. 
After the trees are girdled, the fallen timber is logged off, or cut into 
proper lengths, and the grubs taken up by the roots. When this is 
done, the smaller trees are cut down and logged off. As the nutnC' 
rous and drooping limbs of the spruce, pine or hemlock, shade the 
crops too much, even after their foliage have been destroyed by- 
girdling, they are also cut down, unless they are so large or so nu- 
merous that the farmer's force or capital cannot effect it. In the 
latter case, if he or his sons be active, the limbs are sometimes chop- 
ped off near to the trunk, by commencing at the top of the tree, 
and proceeding downward. As the limbs are small in proportion 
to the size of the tree, the task is not very laborious. They actually 
fall around the tree, and burn very freely. Therefore, girdling is 
in this case, omitted. 

However, without the aid of girdling or the fire kindled in the 
brush, the tree would die, as it and the white pine appear to be inca- 
pable of surviving the destruction of their limbs and foliage. From 
which it seems reasonable to suppose that a very considerable pro- 
portion of their support is gathered from the atmosphere : especially 
as a much greater body of these kinds of timber exist where trees 
of this sort prevail, than we generally see on grounds of equal ca- 
pacity, where trees of this description do not constitute the prin- 
cipal part of the timber. We also often see nearly as much heavy 
deciduous timber perfected on the soil, as it appears capable of 
supporting, together with a very large body of white or spruce pine, 
or both intermixed among it. 

Here I beg leave to remark, that Sir H. Davy says, " if the leaves 



382 

arc stripped off from a tree in the sprin^^, it uniformly dies."* No- 
thing can be more erroneous than this unqualified assertion ; it 
proves, however, as does the general tenor of his book on Agricultu- 
ral Chemistrj, that gentlemen should not attempt to explain subjects 
with which they are not practically conversant. White and spruce 
pines seem to depend much on their foliage ; there may be also other 
evergreens, and some deciduous trees, that do the same ; it is, 
however, well known to every farmer in the back- woods, that trees 
generally are not so readily killed, as Sir Humphrey seems to ima- 
gine : especially in the spring, as at that season of the year, nature 
sooner repairs any damage that may happen to be done to them. 

It has been before observed, that green poles formed into a fence, 
and the logs with which our cabins are built, sometimes vegetate, 
and produce branches and leaves, and that fence stakes, formed with 
green poles, often take root and grow. 

It will be readily granted, that cutting down a tree deranges the 
economy of it, much more than stripping off' its leaves ; the stumps 
of some kinds of trees, which have been cut down in the spring, or 
at any other season of the year, vegetate from the sides, as well as 
the roots of them, so often, and profusely, that I have had to cut off" 
a new growth of sprouts proceeding from them, every time the fal- 
low crop, grown on the grounds where the stumps stood, were cul- 
tivated,! I have often seen, not only the leaves, but also the limbs 
removed, from deciduous trees, and a new set of thrifty branches 
and leaves formed : these branches commonly grow with great ra- 
pidity, in consequence of the great quantity of nutritious matter 
supplied by the extensive organ of nourishment connected with, 
them 4 

But to return. The sugar tree, common maple, &r. are seldom 
effectually killed by girdling. If it be convenient, they ought to be 
cut down ; when this cannot be done, the brush and underwood 
ahould be heaped around them, in sufficient quantities to burn off" 
all the bark about three or four feet above the ground, and also to 
atfect the interior parts of the tree by heat so much, that its vege- 
tative powers will be destroyed. 

The brush and grubs are commonly first heaped and burned to 
make room for rolling, heaping, and burning the logs ; after this, 
the chips, with the small pieces of the brush, are raked, or gathered 
into heaps, and burned, together with the rotten trunks of trees, and 

* See liis Leo. on Agr Chem. page 67. 
. t If these sprouts are suffered to grow, those nearest to the ground take 
root, and form perfect and thrifty trees. 

+ Here another fact is seen ; while the powerful principles of life can freely 
act on the upper structu'e of the ti'ecs, but few, if any, branches ever appear on 
the body of it, which nature had trimmed by shade When the tree, however, 
is cut down, she rouses into action, the sleeping buds in the stump, which had 
lain torpid for ages. How wonderfully minute then must be the organization 
of a tree, while the whole of it lies sleeping or torpid in tlie seed, especially, 
as some of the seeds which form the whole structiu'e of the largest trees in oui" 
forests are very small. 



333 

other combustible matters, that may be in the way of the plough, or, 
that had accumulated in sufficient quantities to injure vegetation. 

Some Pennsylvania farmers, after they have made a sufficient 
clearing in this way to answer their immediate purposes, cut down 
all the timber in their future clearing, and would have greatly pre- 
ferred this mode of management in the beginning, if they had con- 
sidered it practicable to procure a sufficiency of soil in that way to 
support their families and cattle. 

But either from a lack of that enterprise, which marks the Yankee 
farmer in this kind of business, or some other cause, the whole of 
the timber is seldom removed by the Pennsylvania cultivator. It 
would, however, seem, that practice not only reconciles the Yankee 
to the laborious task of removing all the timber, but also enables 
him to execute the work with much more skill and despatch than 
the Pennsylvania farmer. 

Where there is a rational prospect of bringing the timber into 
profitable use, before that degree of decay takes place which causes 
it to fall on the crops, it should not be cut down. It would, however, 
be very difficult to convince the farmers in my neighbourhood, where, 
the trees are larger, and thicker set together, than I have ever yet 
seen them grow, that it is possible a scarcity of timber could ever 
happen here ; still, I do not question, if the settlement should from 
this time progress as rapidly as many others have done, that 
some of them may live to see the day, when their farms will not 
atford a sufficiency of it to fence their grounds, notwithstanding they 
possess the advantage of inexhaustible banks of stone coal for fuel. 

Man is the most destructive animal in the universe, when he 
considers that his resources cannot fail. Reason furnishes him with 
many inventions, to overcome the obstacles to his favourite plans. 

In new settlements, the timber is commonly the greatest obstacle 
to cultivation ; this begets an emulation to destroy it ; he is consi- 
dered the best farmer, who clears the most land. This enterprise 
would be laudable to a certain extent ; the habit, however, of consi- 
dering the timber in the way, induces the farmer to wage a perpe- 
tual war against it, until his eyes are opened, by finding that he has 
neither fencing nor firewood left. 

This mania is greatly increased from an opinion that his crops 
are multiplied in proportion to the extent of his cleared grounds. 
It is the too general practice with the Pennsylvania back-woods 
farmer, to continue ploughing, or rather scratching his grounds an- 
nually, until they are so much exhausted that cockle, cheat, and 
other weeds form by far the principal part of his crops. This com- 
pels him to give rest to the soil, until nature has spread a thin set 
covering of debilitated grasses and weeds over it. Necessity, there- 
fore, urges him to clear more land. As this is also worn out by 
the same system of management, he presently finds, that products 
sufficient to answer his purposes cannot be obtained, unless an ex- 
tensive clearing is made. This is a true picture of Pennsylvania 
back-woods farming as it is generally pursued. 

There are, however, exceptions to this too general practice ; for 



334 

some back-woods farmers do give considerable attention to grass 
and manure ; but they are few indeed, when compared with the 
number of perpetual ploughers and croppers. These last mention- 
ed cultivators, commonly gather all the hay used by them, from a 
little patch of perpetual meadow ground. On this the farmer spreads 
the little manure made by his scanty stock, if his other engage- 
ments will admit it to be readily done. It would, however, appear 
that this little patch is too often neglected, as we frequently see 
the manure heaped about the doors of the stables so high, that it is 
difficult for his horses and cattle to get either in or out of them. 
Nay more, the entrance into the stable doors, is sometimes so con- 
fined by the dung heaped up around them, that even the farmer's 
sheep, which wolves compel him to secure at night, find it difficult 
to get in or out of them. 

It is said, and I believe it, though I have not witnessed the fact, 
that the dung has accumulated round some barns in such great 
quantities, as to render access to them so difficult, that they nave 
been burned and new ones built. As the farmer considered this 
more economical than encountering the labour of removing the ma- 
nure. Now it is by no means wonderful that we should so often 
hear such cultivators complaining that their winter grain had been 
smothered by snow. For whether these crops are or are not some- 
times injured by this cause, it is evident they cannot withstand the 
vicissitudes of inclement seasons, when the plants have been 
starved and debilitated by lack of nutriment. 

But to return. The Pennsylvania back-woods farmer commonly 
depends on the hay procured from his little patch of perpetual 
meadow ground, together with the straw grown on his impoverished 
fields, to keep his cattle from perishing through the winter. If the 
winter, however, happens to be severe and protracted, many cattle 
are lost from lack of nutriment alone, or the diseases introduced 
by starvation. 

If such a farmer as this commence with one hundred acres' of 
land, by the time he becomes advanced in years, and his debility 
greatly increased by the excessive labour encountered in clearing 
his grounds, he has to lament over the barren waste which his folly 
has created, and which he has not funds to repair. His sorrow will 
be greatly aggravated by observing that timber has been so scarce 
and valuable that one acre of tolerably well set woodland will sell 
for more money than five acres of his impoverished soil. His vex- 
ations will be still more increased, if he be eventually convinced 
that he might have lived much better, and with infinitely less la- 
bour, on thirty acres of cleared grounds, properly managed, and 
maintained or increased the original fertility of it: also preserved 
seventy acres of his woodlands. There can be no doubt, but the 
dead and fallen timber would have supplied all his wants, and fur- 
nished a considerable overplus, which might have been advantage- 
ously sold to his less provident neighbours, and that the growth of 
the young timber would fully supply the deficiency arising from the 
fall and decay of the older trees. 



335 

If one half or even more of all the grounds now cleared from 
their wood in our older settlements, had been suffered to remain 
covered with timber, the remaining half, or even less, would have 
produced much more than the whole now does, provided its original 
fertility had been preserved, and only a tolerable good system of 
management pursued. More lumber, tar, pitch, turpentine and 
potash might also have been exported. The farmer would have had 
time to economize and judiciously employ the substances from 
which those articles are formed. If this had been done, it would 
have given foreign nations as high an opinion of American prudence, 
as recent events have given them of the hardihood, activity, talents 
and enterprise of our citizens. 

The Yankee farmer first chops the fallen timber, then scalps off 
the grubs level with the ground. After this, he cuts down all the 
trees, taking care that they fall regularly, side by side. The 
branches are then chopped fine enough to lie suflBciently compact 
to favour the burning. Some log off the timber before, and others 
after the fire takes place. In either case, the whole is suffered to 
lie until the wood is sufficiently seasoned, and a dry time is chosen 
to set fire to the mass. After this, the logs are heaped and burned 
with any remaining chips, or bits of brush, found on the ground. 

The grounds are not ploughed, but well harrowed, by a very 
heavy harrow, with strong and heavy tines, formed for the purpose. 
Wheat is commonly the first crop.* This is generally followed by 
rye sown on the wheat stubble, without ploughing for it. The 
grounds are, however, well harrowed ' by the same heavy harrow, 
previously to sowing the rye, and grass seeds are sown on it. Some 
Yankee farmers take but one crop of small grain, and sow grass 
seeds on it. In either case, if the cultivator be a good one, the 
grounds remain in grass until the roots of the trees have sufficiently 
decayed to admit the plough to pass through the soil, with much less 
labour and inconvenience than it would do when they are sound. If 
the roots happen to be of those kinds which sink soonest into de- 
cay, they are commonly so rotten before the grass grounds are cul- 
tivated, that they present no very serious obstacles to the plough. 

If the soil be a good one, the wheat crop following the burning 
is luxuriant. The rye is also respectable, and so are the grasses 
following it. These are all obtained without the expense of grub- 
bing or ploughing. The texture of the new gtoundi favours the pro- 
cesses of vegetation, for they had been kept open and mellow by 
the covering which nature had wisely provided for them. This, with 
the stimulus of the salts contained in the ashes, together with the 
animal and vegetable matters which escape the burning, are capa- 
ble of producing very large crops. Perhaps a better method could 
not be devised for clearing woodlands, or a more profitable first 

• Indian com, and also potatoes, are frequently a firet crop on a part of the 
Yankee farmer's grounds. Both those crops commonly prosper well. Wheat, 
or any other small grain, except oats, however, seldom jjrospers after corn or 
potatoes, when the grounds have been cleared by burning in the Yankee way. 



836 

course of crops be introduced, if it were not that by far the greater 
part of the animal and vegetable matter which nature had been ac- 
cumulating for a great length of time, is destroyed in a day or two, 
by the destructive and truly inconsiderate and savage practice of 
burning. 

The destruction introduced by the burning is best seen when the 
Yankee method of clearing, and the Pennsylvania practice of 
ploughing and cropping, are united. I know a farmer who removed 
to the back-woods, purchased five thousand acres of land, built a 
sawmill, and did many other things, which cost him much labour 
and money. He, however, abandoned the whole, and assured me 
he could get no person to live on the premises rent free when he 
left it. 

Now, if this gentleman had followed either the Yankee or Penn- 
sylvania practice, separately and judiciously, he would have suc- 
ceeded, and the increased value of the land would have made him 
eventually wealthy. By mixing both modes of management, he 
was ruined, as is many a farmer, by moving into the back-woods 
M'ithout being acquainted with the business he has to encounter. 

He was an Englishman, and considered in this country a good 
farmer, both before and after he lived in the back-woods. Among 
other things, he informed me, that he had cleared ten acres of 
ground by burning in the Yankee way. From this he obtained a 
luxuriant crop of corn, with no other labour than that of planting 
it, and cutting off by the ground, with the hoe, a fev/ scattering 
weeds, which grew up, here and there, among the plants. Finding, 
however, that after this the grounds grew no profitable crop, but 
oats, and that all the land he had cleared and cultivated was gene- 
rally reduced to the same state, he removed from the back-woods. 
After his return, I asked him if he had ever tried sowing grass 
seed, at an early date, and suffering the grounds to lie some consi- 
derable time in grass, before they were ploughed for cultivated 
crops. He told me he had not ; and indeed, as I believed from his 
conversation, had not even thought of renewing them in this way, 
or supposed that they had been injured by the burning. After some 
little conversation, however, he seemed to think that the practice 
might have succeeded. I urged him to return and make the trial, 
and am now far better convinced than I was nearly six years ago, 
when this advice was given, that he would have succeeded. He had, 
however, suffered greatly, and his funds seemed to be too much re- 
duced to renew the struggle, with any very confident hope of suc- 
cess. 

Grass is nature's infallible restorative ; and while the stimulus of 
llie salts contained in the ashes continues to act, it will greatly in- 
crease the number and size of the roots and tops of the grasses. 
These will, therefore, most assuredly return to the land a conside- 
rable portion of what it had lost by the burning; especially if the 
tops of grasses be turned under the soil, when the lay is broken up 
for cultivateil crops. 

But why should this inconsiderate waste of animal and vegetable 



337 

matters take place ? It is readily granted that the labour is less; 
also, that if the soil be deep and rich, much of these matters will 
escape the burning, and that the first round of crops will be good. 
Still, reason and observation clearly determine that the texture of 
the soil immediately after it is cleared from its wood, is exactly cal- 
culated to sutier immensely from fire, in dry times. It is formed of 
vegetation, which is only partly decayed. This, when dry, will burn 
like tinder, until the firmer earthy soil underneath puts a stop to 
the progress of the destructive element. When those partly de- 
cayed and open spongy substances are intimately blended by the 
plough and harrow witn the firmer earthy soil underneath them, the 
crops are excellent, and the soil is no further exhausted than is ac- 
,tually necessary for the support of the plants grown on it : conse- 
quently, it will be found vastly richer than it could possibly be af- 
ter the destructive practice of burning. This fact is so very ob- 
vious to common sense, as well as practical observation, tliat it 
cannot be rationally controverted. Yet paring and burning the 
soil has been in very common practice in England, and is now ad- 
vocated there by gentlemen of celebrated talents. As many of our 
agricultural errors, as well as improvements, have been copied from 
the practice of that country, this may be the reason why the Yan- 
kee farmer does not seem to suspect that burning injures the soil. 
He appears to sow grass seeds merely to get rid of the trouble ot 
ploughing among roots and scalped grubs, until time has rendered 
this operation less difficult; and to introduce the practice of graz- 
ing which he has been early taught to respect. 

It is evident, however, that the judicious parer and burner of the 
soil, in England, is governed in his practice of laying down his 
grounds in grass, from observing when this has not been done in 
time, that the soil is ruined j as in the defence of his erroneous sys- 
tem, he says, no injury arises from the burning, if the grounds be 
properly manured, or returned in due time to grass. He, however, 
at the same time affirms, that if grass seeds be sown in time the im- 
provement is great. This may be very true if plenty of enriching 
manure be applied, as is generally done when good farmers cultivate 
the soil by paring and burning. The application of this is not ne- 
cessary for the first crops. It is, however, commonly used previously 
to laying down the lands in grass, unless they happen to be old and 
rich grass grounds. In that case the burning opens the texture of 
them, by reducing the consolidated and matted sod. Tlie young 
and vigorous grasses produce good crops, and the soil being at the 
same time filled with their roots, an improvement seems to be made 
without manure. But if the paring and burning were soon repeat- 
ed, it would be quickly seen that the grounds were far less capable 
of withstanding the loss of the animal and vegetable matter de- 
stroyed by the second ordeal; and that a regular continuation of 
this savage practice, without the use of much enriching manure, 
would sooner and more effectually ruin the richest and best of soils 
than any other mode of management that has been yet proposed 

U u 



338 

In the clearing of our woodlands the brush and log heaps are 
burned at random- This is a bad practice. They ought to be 
burned on the richer ground near to the poorest spots in the clear- 
ing. In this case as much of the ashes as is necessary to excite 
the growth of the cultivated crops and grasses following them may 
be readily spread over these poor places. This will not only greatly 
increase the cultivated crops and grasses on those thin or poor crops, 
but also enrich them for the growth of future crops by filling ihem 
with the roots of the grasses. If the heaps be burned on the poor 
places, the burning leaves too little animal and vegetable matters 
for the salts in the ashes to act upon. 

Many poor places are formed by the trees being blown up by the 
roots. These are generally very numerous where the timber is . 
large and its roots superficial. The winds act much more power- 
fully on very tall trees. Their superficial roots appear to be less 
capable of holding them in the ground than roots which grow 
deeper into it. It also seems that those wide spreading roots 
which run near the surface of the soil bring up a much wider ex- 
tent of ground with them when the tree is blown down. The large 
hole made by the blowing down of the tree lies immediately be- 
hind the roots of it. The bottom of the hole is composed of poor, 
inert earth, incapable of supporting vegetation, unless the soil is 
very deep. This seldom happens except in rich bottoms formed 
by the deposition of ages. As the bottom of the holes lies consi- 
derably deeper than the surface of the adjoining soil, the winds, 
together with washing rains and melting snows, lodge much animal 
and vegetable matters in them. This, during a long lapse of time, 
gradually fills them sufficiently, by the decay of these substances, 
to make them much richer than the soil around them. The earth 
removed by the roots of the tree is confined by them until the frost 
and rains gradually remove it. The richest, and of consequence 
the lightest part of the soil, falls off from the front of the root first. 
As the texture of this is open and light, a considerable proportion 
of it is washed away by the rain and melting snows. After this, 
the poor, heavy, compact earth which had been more closely con- 
fined by the roots of the tree gradually falls off and forms a poor 
hillock. From this the principal part of the leaves and other ve- 
getation falling on it is naturally washed or blown off. Nothing 
can well exceed the poverty of the hillock formed in tliis way, even 
after no vestige of the fallen tree which formed it remains, and 
very frequently after a tree equajly as large as any within sight of 
the place is seen growing on the top of this poor mount. It would 
seem that the tree standing on it must have grown very slowly, 
until its roots had pierced through the poor ground and become 
established in the richer soil underneath and round about tiie 
mount. Be this, however, as it may, these hillocks are very often 
thickly dispersed in every direction through forests which consist 
principally of timber that forms wide spreading superficial roots, 
©r where this kin<l of timber had formerly prevailed. After the 



339 

grounds have been brought into cultivation, scarcely any thing 
worth gathering is found to grow on them, until by long continued 
cultivation they have beeij leveled down to the better soil, which 
had been for ages buried underneath them. 

The causes of the formation of this hillock is readily seen, by 
observing what has happened where trees have been recently 
blown down, also where they have sunk, less or more, into decay, 
until no vestige of them remains. 

I have been the more particular to describe these hillocks and 
the causes which form them, because they often greatly injure a 
considerable proportion of the soil where large timber with super- 
ficial roots had prevailed, and farmers take no measures to render 
them fertile; although they both see, and extensively feel, in the 
prdduct of their crops, the evil introduced by them, and actually 
possess the means of improving them readily in the way that has 
been in part pointed out. To complete the improvement, the roots 
which will be removed from the stumps in the different cultivations 
of the ground should be regularly burned on the richer grounds 
near to the hillocks, and the ashes spread on the latter. If this 
practice be regularly pursued, these poor places will be fertile until 
they are leveled down by cultivation to the richer soil underneath 
them. 

There are other causes which make a great difference in adjoin- 
ing soils, that have remained for ages under nature's control. The 
animal and vegetable substances are swept away by torrents of wa- 
ter, and high winds, in large quantities from hill sides; more par- 
ticularly in northerly exposures. We also see, even in the lower 
grounds, that torrents of water or some other cause have formed 
wide and deep hollows. That notwithstanding time has covered 
the sides and bottoms of them with soil and timber, the soil on the 
sides of the declivities, is often much poorer than that on the adjoin- 
ing grounds above them, as animal and vegetable matter gathers 
on places from which much of it is washed or blown off. 

The hill sides and declivities ought to be managed in the same 
way as has been recommended for the hillocks. Great care should 
be taken, when the grounds are cultitated, to form the water fur- 
rows in that way which will be best calculated to prevent the soil 
on the hill sides and declivities from being washed away. If either 
or even a small part of them, are too steep to be profitably conti- 
nued in cultivation, grass seed sought to be sown on those spots with 
the first cultivated crop, and the grounds continued in grass. In 
this way they may be always rendered more or less profitable ; but 
it is useless and very injurious to cultivate grounds, from which 
the soil must be soon washed away. If they be laid down in grass 
before they are exhausted, their fertility may be continually pre- 
served by letting a full crop of grass decay on them as often as this 
may be ^und necessary. It is best to manure grounds of this de- 
scription, by letting the grasses rot on them, as enriching manures 
spread over them are more subject to be washed away. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

The cultivation pursued by the Pennsylvania back-woods farmer, contrasted 
with that practised by the Yankee. The Yankee mode of clearing; new 
grounds, may be readily altered, so as to be by far the best practice that 
has yet been pursued ; and how this may be done. On the best method to 
be pursued in the cultivation of the different kinds of new soil. 

I*. 
T very clearly appears that notwithstanding the Pennsylvania 

back-woods farmer's system of clearing woodlands, is not calculated 

to injure the soil, his perpetual ploughing and cropping with but 

little attention to grass or farm yard manure, renders his mode of 

management vastly inferior to that of the Yankee. 

Except the destruction introduced by the latter, in clearing 
the land, his system of management, if he be a full bred, well inform- 
ed Yankee farmer, is ameliorating. Every means in his power is 
taken to increase his live stock. He depends principally upon 
them for the provision and clothing used by his family, and on the 
sale of them to purchase such necessaries as he cannot obtain from 
his grounds; also to pay for his land. This he generally purchases 
on a long credit, dividing the amount into easy periodical payments. 

The Yankee method of clearing woodlands would be excellent, 
if in place of waiting until the wood became dry, and selecting a 
dry time for burning, he would run the fire through the clearing 
when the leaves, smaller parts of the brush, chips, and other light 
▼egetation are sufficiently dry to be burned without injuring the soil, 
by burning those vegetable substances underneath them, which have 
in part sunk into decay, and which, though very inflammable when 
they are well dried, and powerfully excited by a considerable fire 
in wood above them, will remain uninjured by the burning only of 
the leaves, smaller parts of the brush, chips and other light vegeta- 
ble matters lying above them, if this be done when long continued 
dry weather has not exhaled the moisture in the soil. As while a 
sufficiency of moisture remains to keep the fire from running deep 
into it, no injury will be done, except where the log and brush 
heaps are burned. In those spots, especially where the log heaps 
are burned, the heat will be so intense that the little soil covered 
by them will be greatly injured by the destruction of the animal 
and vegetable matttr contained in it. As this, however, is an evil 
that cannot be avoided, it should be patiently borne. 

The ashes introduced by the lenient system of management re- 
commended above, together with those spread from where the log 
and binish heaps are burned, will afllbrd a sufficient dressing to ex- 
cite the new soil to an immediate fertility, at least equal to thatob- 



341 

tained by the Yankee method of burning. If potash be desirable, it 
may be made before the ashes are spread. 

If this mode of clearing be pursued, the grubs should be removed. 
Of this, however, the farmer should not complain, for although many 
of them are killed by the Yankee practice of burning, a sufBcient 
number survive this truly savage ordeal, to givfc the cultivator con- 
siderable trouble, and also to injure his crops. 

The grounds cleared in the way which has been proposed, ought 
to be ploughed and harrowed sufficiently, to blend the partly de- 
cayed vegetable matters, intimately with the earthy and more solid 
soil, lying underneath them. For notwithstanding, a sufficiency of 
animal and vegetable matters, are necessary to a luxuriant growth 
of plants, too great a body of these substances, especially when 
they have sunk into but a very partial decay, and are not mixed 
with a sufficiency of earthy matters, are very injurious to it, and 
may be so superabundant as to destroy it. 

The reason why new grounds, which have not been burned in the 
Yankee way, are considered too wild for some crops, but most espe- 
cially for the growth of maize, is as obvious as almost any other 
thing. The roots of the plants cannot prosper in the open, and but 
too often dry, and inert texture of such soils. Earth is quite 
as necessary to an efficient vegetation, as the other ingredients, 
which are commonly mingled together with it ; it is the happy mix- 
ture of the whole of them combined, that constitutes the rich and 
fertile soil. Therefore, when the Pennsylvania farmer pursues his 
method of clearing woodlands, all the leaves, and light dry vegeta- 
ble matters, found on the surface of the soil, together with the 
partly decayed vegetable matters proceeding from the decay of the 
trunks and larger limbs of the fallen timber, should be gathered, or 
raked up into heaps, and burned ; even the decayed, powdery sub- 
stance arising from the rotten trunks of trees has not been suffici- 
ently decomposed to favour vegetation, where it lies in any consi- 
derable quantity;* of consequence, it also should be burned, or thinly 
spread over the soil, after the leaves, &c. have been consumed. The 
ashes produced by the burning of the log heaps, &c. should be 
spread over the soil in manner before directed, whether potash be 
or be not made. 

If after the ashes have been spread, the soil be well mixed, as 
before explained, by the plough and harrow, we shall hear no more 
complaints of the wild nature of lands recently cleared from their 
wood. 

Where superficial roots abound, the shovel plough far exceeds 
the long plough for preparing new ground ; but not when only 
about half the ground is ploughed, and the other half covered by the 
soil, which the shovel spreads on either side of it ; this slovenly 
practice is too general in the back-woods ; the farmers in my neigh 
bourhood call it *icut and cover ploughing." 

* Even the potato does not prosper well, when planted in an extensive body 
of this partly decayed, vegetable, powdery matter. 



842 

To use the shovel plough properly, and profitably, the whole of 
the soil should be regularly cut up the first ploughing ; after it has 
been harrowed, it ought to be properly ploughed again in a contrary 
direction, and well harrowed ; when it has been thus prepared, it 
will be found in good condition, either for planting fallow crops, or 
sowing small grain ;• unless the grounds be filled with fern, dwarf 
huckleberry, or other small woody plants, having numerous hardy 
roots, too small to be profitably grubbed up. 

In that case, those plants should be mowed off close by the 
ground, and burned with the other vegetation found in the way ; such 
plants seldom if ever occur in sufficient quantities much in the way, 
except in thin set woodlands, where but few white or spruce pines, 
or other trees, having extensive superficial roots, prevail; therefore, 
the long plough may be most advantageously employed. 

The very numerous and hard roots of the small woody plants 
which prevail in grounds of this description, are often so matted to- 
gether in flakes, that it requires considerable labour to blend the 
upper surface of the soil, with the more solid earthy matters under 
it; especially, as these matted bundles of roots, together with the 
partly decayed vegetation confined in among them, are dragged up 
into heaps by the harrow. 

Wheat is too often sown on such grounds, by the back-woods 
Pennsylvania farmer, after they have been only twice ploughed, and 
well harrowed, and the crop is sometimes good ; in general, how- 
ever, the product obtained by this imperfect cultivation is light; 
but good crops are often grown on such soils, after they have been 
three times ploughed, well harrowed, and water furrowed by the 
plough alone. 

It is, however, the best practice, when the clearing can be made 
in time, to plough grounds of this description in the fall; this exposes 
the roots of the hardy, woody plants, to winter frosts. After this, 
wheat, or other winter grain, may be very advantageously grown on 
them, if they be twice more ploughed, and well harrowed, previous to 
sowing the seed ; if water furrowed, by the plough alone, unless the 
earthy texture of the soil be very retentive of moisture, and the co- 
vering of dead vegetable matters, forming the upper part of it, too 
thin to keep the texture of it sufficiently open to filter off the water; 
still there can be but little doubt, that proper water furrowing will, 
in any case, generally increase the product of the crop considerably. 

To produce large crops of maize on such soils as have been 
described above, they ought to be ploughed in the fall, and twice 
ploughed and well harrowed in the spring ; this can be but too sel- 
dom conveniently done by the back- woods farmer ; he may, however, 
grow his maize on such grounds, with but one ploughing ; for al- 
though the crops cannot in that case be so productive as when the 
soil is better prepared, they may be good. 

When it can be done, it will be far best to plough the ground in 
the fall, and close the seams between the furrow slices with the tined 
harrow ; this will cause many of the hardy roots of the small woody 



343 

plants to be destroyed by frost, it will also greatly promote art early 
fermentation. This will prepare more food for the plants, and as 
time, with rain, the weight of the snow, &c. will have consolidated 
the open spongy texture of the new soil considerably, the farmer 
may plant his crop thicker than when the ground is ploughed in 
the spring; the crop, however, will be a good one, even when the 
grounds are not ploughed until spring, if the management be pro- 
per, and more plants are not introduced than may be well supported 
by the nutriment arising from the feeble fermentation that will take 
place in the open texture of a soil filled with hardy roots, which had 
not been exposed to and injured by the winter's frost. When corn 
is grown on such grounds, after but one ploughing, done either iu 
the fall or spring, the furrows for planting should be made deep 
enough to lay the seed on the more solid and earthy soil, and it 
should be covered not more than one inch deep, with the same ma- 
terial. The plants cannot penetrate a covering, composed princi- 
pally of hard undecayed vegetable substances, neither does the seed 
vegetate well under a dry open covering of this kind ; it generally 
rots, or if dripping weather should happen to excite sufficient fer- 
mentation to cause the grain to sprout, and the plants are able to 
penetrate the covering, still, unless the fermentation be kept up by 
an unusual continuation of moisture and heat, a lack of nutriment 
causes the plants to spindle, and if they should happen to stand 
thick on the ground, they turn sallow, and become sickly. 

This has induced farmers to believe, that new grounds, like the 
animals which formerly inhabited them, are wild, and must be tamed 
before Indian corn can be profitably grown on them ; they therefore 
grow other crops, until the grounds become tame and manageable ; 
wheat and rye are commonly grown to effect this purpose. 

The true state of the case, however, is simply this : wheat or rye 
is not any thing like so readily injured as corn by that lack of 
moisture and heat which proves insufficient to promote a very pro- 
fitable vegetation. If they should happen to lie long in the soil 
without coming up, the rains and snows, which seldom fail to fall 
late in autumn and early in the spring, generally cause a consi- 
derable proportion to vegetate and come up even after they have 
lain all the winter in the earth without any appearance of vegeta- 
tion above the soil. As the soil is continually becoming more com* 
pact until the wheat and rye is perfected, fermentation and the 
nutritive matters arising from this interesting process of nature, 
are also gradually increased, and profitably applied at the time 
they are most wanted; to wit, when the plants are forming and 
filling their grain. 

As maize planted after the winter grain in the more compact 
soil seldom fails to prosper, unless the grounds have been too much 
exhausted, (which by the by very generally happens,) the farmer is 
confirmed in his erroneous opinion that grounds recently cleared 
from their wood are too wild to grow profitable crops of corn: 
when, in fact the cultivation of that plant is exactly calculated to 



344 

prepare the soil for small grain ; by consolitiating the loose tex- 
ture of it, and by this means promoting the decomposition of the 
hard vegetable substances contained in it ; also by destroying the 
sprouts and roots of hardy plants, which never fail of producing an 
extensive growth of very injurious vegetation, unless it be kept 
under by the tedious and expensive practice of hand weeding. 
As, however, the slovenly farming in the back-woods has com- 
pelled the cultivator to encounter the tedious task of hand weeding 
rather than lose his crops of small grain, it is wonderful to see with 
how much patience and resignation he will perform it. It would, 
however, seem, as his horses are idle while he is doing this tedious 
vTork, that it would cost him far less labour to cultivate the soil 
properly previously to sowing the small grain: but it will be diffi- 
cult to convince him of this, as he has been accustomed to do the 
one, and to leave the other undone. 

But to return. After the corn has been planted as above di- 
rected, the soil and roots removed by making the furrows for plant- 
ing should be returned into them, taking care to place the roots of 
the small woody plants uppermost; also not to cover the clusters 
of seed with them. If this method be pursued, and the grounds 
are properly turned, and the seams between the furrow slices well 
closed by the harrow previously to planting, the crop will prosper, 
provided it be superficially cultivated by the hoe and tined harrow. 

It is probable that placing the seed so far below the surface, 
(especially if the partly decayed vegetable substances happen to 
run deep,) will compel the plants to form a new set of roots after 
the hollows formed by the clusters of seed have been filled up by 
the superficial cultivation of the plants.* This injury, however, 
cannot be readily avoided without encountering the far greater 
evil of planting the seed on the hard vegetable matters, and cover- 
ing it, at least in part, with the same materials. 

When the seed is laid on the earthy and more solid soil, the 
finger roots will dip deep into it and convey much moisture to the 
plants. The lateral roots, that dip deepest, will also derive much 
advantage from the earthy texture of the firmer soil. If the lateral 
roots of plants be attentively examined, it is readily seen, that 
fibres or roots growing from the under sides of them dip consi- 
derably deeper into the soil than those growing out from that part 
of the root lying nearer to the surface of the ground.f The mois- 
ture arising from the earth below will keep the partly decayed and 
hard vegetable substances lying above it vastly more moist than 
could possibly happen if these substances were turned up by the 

• The injury is much less when the plants are compelled to form a new set 
of roots while they are very young'; especially as this will interfere but httle, 
if any, with their forming prop roots at the proper time. 

t This is a wise provision of nature, as those roots are well calculated to 
gather in a dry time much moisture, far below the range of those that grow in 
horizontal directions. The structure of these roots is most readily seen when 
9pnice, or white pine, or other trees with superficial roots, are blown down. 



345 

plough and exposed to the drying influence of the sun and air 
every time the crop is cultivated; therefore, the fermentation and 
decomposition of these matters will supply sufficient nutriment for 
the crop of corn unless too many plants be suffered to stand on 
the ground. 

Very close planting should not be practised on new soils con- 
taining much dried and hard vegetable substances. The nature 
and texture of them is such that a decomposition of sufficient nu- 
tritive matters is not to be expected in time to grow a very heavy 
crop of maize. The number of corn plants, however, may be con- 
siderably increased if the farmer can get the grounds ploughed in 
the fall and the seams between the furrow slices well closed with 
the harrow. The winter rains and snows, together with time, will 
consolidate the open texture of such soils, and the frost will kill 
many of the roots of the hardy vegetation. This will greatly pro- 
mote fermentation in the spring. Lime might be very advan- 
tageously employed on such grounds, but it too seldom happens 
that the back-woods farmer's capital will admit the use of it. 

When wheat is sown for a first crop on grounds recently cleared, 
barley, oats, or rye, may be advantageously grown after it : pro- 
vided the soil be well cultivated by the hoe and fined harrow fol- 
lowing it, or by the shovel plough and fined harrow, (where super- 
ficial roots of trees abound,) previously to sowing the seed. 

Grass seeds should be sown on the second cultivated crop, unless 
the soil be deep and rich. In that case, three cultivated crops may 
be safely taken before the grounds are laid down in grass. 

Inconsiderate and avaricious farmers will consider this number of 
cultivated crops far short of what ought to be grown before the 
grounds are laid down in grass. Their ultimate prosperity, how- 
ever, greatly depends on this pivot : yet it seems probable that 
habit, and deep rooted prejudice, will turn the scale against com- 
mon sense and observation. But they should recollect, if the soil 
be too much exhausted to produce luxuriant crops of the grasses, 
it cannot be fully replenished with their roots, or the animal mat- 
ters introduced by the agency of their roots and tops ; that not- 
withstanding gypsum will stimulate the soil to produce good crops 
of red clover, if this grass be sown, yet this is effected by the hasty 
and unnatural decomposition of the animal and vegetable matters 
found in it: therefore, the land is still further exhausted by this 
speedy process of obtaining nutriment from it. No question, how- 
ever, if this practice be properly ordered, but it will, in time, re- 
store to the land <Vhat it had lost by the application of the stimulat- 
ing manure, with redoubled interest: still, the crops are curtailed 
until the soil has regained its original fertility. Every waggoner 
knows full well, that no extra gain obtained by working his horses 
too hard, will repay him for the loss he must sustain in consequence 
of this injudicious management. He also knows, that unless his 
horses be properly fed, they cannot be profitable to him. Farmers 
do not, however, so soon see, or severely feel, the evil arising from 

Xx 



»46 

working their land too hard, or starving it. They, therefor*, ap- 
pear to think but little of the ruinous consequence, until it is too 
late. Neither is it to be expected that they will give due attention 
to this interesting subject, until thej become better acquainted with 
the great analogy there is between plants and animals : also, learn 
that plants subsist on the same food as man, and that no other sub- 
stances, except animal and vegetable matters, furnish any nutri- 
ment for either. 

Here it is considered proper to remark, that it commonly happens 
that either the roots from the grubs, which are left behind when the 
grub is removed, or the small roots proceeding from the larger 
roots of the trees, or the roots of the small woody plants mention- 
ed above, generally fill the upper part of the soil with so many ob- 
stacles to regular and good ploughing, as to render it very difficult, 
and sometimes impossible, to turn the furrow slices even tolerably 
well. 

Were it not that these obstacles, or large superficial roots gene- 
rally obtain; one ploughing, with the proper use of the hoe and 
tined harrow, would prepare a new soil, where stumps or girdled 
timber were not too thickly set on the ground, far better than the 
practice which has been recommended ; provided the timber be of 
those kinds which do not form large superficial roots, and the 
ploughman understands his business, and keeps his implements 
sharp, and otherwise in good condition. When new grounds may 
be cultivated in this way, they should be ploughed deep to turn up 
at least two inches of the more solid earthy soil, to be incorporated 
by the hoe and tined harrows with a moderate proportion of the 
more open and spongy soil underneath it. This will form an ex- 
cellent preparation either for planting or sowing any cultivated 
crop. The cultivator, however, should not forget, that if it be prac- 
ticable, the grounds ought to be ploughed in the fall, for reasons 
which have been assigned. 

Before I conclude this interesting subject, it is considered pro- 
per to remark, that grasses will vegetate much better, and produce 
more abundantly, in a new soil, where a sufliciency of compact 
earthy soil has been introduced, by a proper cultivation, than they 
will do when a new soil has been only superficially ploughed, or 
scratched, for the growth of the small grain on which the grass 
seeds are sown. 

I have seen grass seeds fail almost entirely, except in the clean- 
ing out furrows, from no other cause than the loose, open, spongy 
texture of the new land, in which little or no fir*m, earthy soil ap- 
peared ; although this soil was not, in general, more than plough 
deep, and laid on a body of very compact potter's clay, which is 
well known to be very retentive of moisture. 

Notwithstanding wheat is generally a sure crop, when it is grown 
on grounds recently cleared from their wood, which have been only 
superficially ploughed or scratched, I have never seen the product 
any thing like as great as on the same description of grounds, pro- 
perly prepared. 



347 

The cause is evident. First, the texture of such soils is not cal- 
culated to promote the extensive prosperity of grain plants. Se- 
condly, in new settlements, the inequalities in the surface of the 
soil, have not been leveled by frequent cultivation : therefore, there 
are, in most fields, a number of hollow places. Notwithstanding 
the texture of the new soil is well calculated to filter off the super- 
fluous moisture, where the form of the surface will admit it to be 
done, the water lodges in the hollows, and the winter grain grow- 
ing in them is destroyed through the winter or early part of the 
spring. If spring crops be planted or sown, the plants standing 
in these hollow places are either killed or sadly injured, by an ex- 
cess of moisture, and the action of heat on it; or by the absence of suf- 
ficient heat and an excess of moisture. It should also be observed that 
even the Yankee practice does not prevent the same serious inju 
ries arising from water confined in these hollow places. In fact, 
nothing short of proper water furrowing can remove this evil ef- 
fectually. 

To cast further light, however, on this subject of new lands, I 
will transcribe my letter to Dr. James Mease. 

"Dear Sir: I have received your's, covering the pamphlet *0n 
the Choice of New Lands.' I might refer you to my book on Ma- 
nures and Vegetation for an explanation of the causes which pro- 
duced the effects that took place in the vale of Tinmouth. As the 
subject, hoAvever, is highly important, and seems to have been en- 
tirely misunderstood, I beg leave to make some remarks on it. 

" The writer represents the plains of Tinmouth as ' a beautiful 
vale, bounded on three sides by exceeding high hills or mountains. 
The surface, from one to three miles wide, has a gentle slope 
towards the centre. These plains were originally covered with an 
immense growth of maple, beech, birch, ash, elm, basswood, &c, 
and had a coat of muck, from six to twelve inches, deep : ' deep 
as heart could wish.' Since my remembrance, this ground yielded 
great crops of wheat. But then it must be remembered, that vege- 
table mould is not black muck, which has been only semi-putrefied. 
A hard pan would occupy the very surface, but for a downy cover- 
ing of a bed of leaves, deposited by successive ages from the forest 
trees, and which are yet, none of them, entirely rotten.'* 

" Now nothing can be more obvious, than that valleys bounded by 
high hills or mountains, are principally indebted to the annual de- 
positions, made by ages, from those hills or mountains, for the very 
deep covering of vegetable and animalf matters, which commonly 
prevail in them. It is also equally evident, that no man in his sobet 
senses can believe, that * none of the leaves deposited, by a succes- 
sion of ages, from the forest trees, are yet entirely rotten.' Especial- 

• See Pamphlet, pages 3, 4. 

•j- It has been explained, in my book on Manures and Vegetation, how nature 
accumulates animal as well as vegetable matters, in soils managed by her. 



348 

ly, as it would have been very dilfficult for nature to have placed them 
in any situation more favourable to fermentation and decomposition. 

" But here I would ask how it happened that this immense body of 
timber could exist so long, and attain so astonishing a size, if the 
• black muck, or leaves, remained for ages not yet entirely rotten?' 
Particularly as it would appear that after the 'muck' had been 
eradicated, as far as it could well be done by cropping, the 
grounds were incapable of supporting a tolerable growth of the 
plants commonly cultivated by us. Although this gentleman tells 
us that for the first five or ten years, no fields produced better crops 
of wheat.* 

" He says, however, 'Trees may grow to a great height and enor- 
mous bulk on such lands, because their roots can penetrate hard 
masses, and extend to great depths and distances.' No nutritious 
matters can be gathered by extending their roots to great depths 
and distances into the hard inert earth, where no food for plants is 
to be found. The only advantage to be derived by extending their 
roots into the inert earth, is that of gathering a plentiful supply of 
moisture, especially in a dry time, and conveying it to the roots 
and other parts of the plant which are situated where the food for 
plants obtains ; by this means invigorating the upper structure of 
the plant, so that it may be better able to gather and convey animal 
and vegetable matters throughout the general system.f For it may 
be laid down as a maxim in the economy of plants and animals, that 
no other substances but decomposable animal and vegetable mat- 
ters, are capable of sustaining animal and vegetable life. 

"Nature, however, seems to have taught the roots of trees not to 
dip too deep into the hard impervious substratum of retentive soils, 
where it is impossible for nutritive matters either to sink or enter. 
We therefore see that the lateral roots of trees grow nearer or fur- 
ther from the surface, in proportion as more or less humidity 
abounds, and that where it greatly prevails, they grow pari 1}^ within 
and partly above the ground, as if it were impossible for them to 
live when enveloped by a great excess of moisture. The taproots 
of trees also accommodate themselves to the ground. If it be re- 
tentive, they grow but a little way into it : if it be very wet, no tap- 
root is seen when the trees are blown up by the roots. 

" The kinds of timber growing on the plains of Tinmouth, deter- 
mined that the soil would be too wet for winter grain, after the ani- 
mal and vegetable matters abounding in it, when the grounds were 
first cleared from their wood, had been considerably exhausted. 
This gentleman, however, is greatly mistaken in saying "The oak 
will not succeed there, and if planted, would grow shrubby and 
dwarfish. :J The blac k, and some other oaks do not succeed in reten- 

* See Pamphlet, pag'e 6 . 

■}■ This is seen when lucerne Is seen growing in a dry climate and soil. It 
continues green and luxuriant while plants, whose roots do not extend so deep 
into the inert tarth, are parched up with drought. 

t See Pamphlet, page 2. 



349 

tive soils, but various other oaks do ; and it is by no means im- 
probable that red and white oaks were once the prevailing timber 
on the vale of Tinmouth, as they grow to an enormous size on 
grounds of the same description. 

" In some parts of the neighbourhood where I reside, red and white 
oak attain a very large size, and are with white and spruce pine, 
the sugar tree and other maple, the generally prevailing timber on 
a great extent of country here. We, however, see the scattering 
trees of beech, birch, basswood and elm, in sufficient number to ren- 
der it highly probable that these kinds of trees were once the pre- 
vailing timber here : also that by the time the soil becomes tired of 
growing the present prevailing timber, these thinly scattered trees 
will have furnished a sufficiency of seed to cause them again to 
prevail. It is, however, evident that a growth of one of these kinds 
of trees, has been eifected on about ten acres of ground, two miles 
from the town. A man, not long after the settlement was formed, set 
fire to the soil in a very dry time. Being very deep and rich, it burn- 
ed like tinder. The fire run so deep underneath the superficial roots 
of the white and spruce pines, which were then the prevailing tim- 
ber, that the winds in a short time caused them to fall to the ground, 
where they are yet lying in great numbers. The consequence has 
been a luxuriant growth of birch and the aspen tree : some of which 
are now thirty feet high. Be the changes in timber and other vege- 
tation, what they may, nothing seems to be more evident than that 
nature when the change is made, is careful to introduce such new 
plants as are congenial with the soil and climate. 

" There are millions of acres of very valuable land in the United 
States; especially on the high lands, and in the higher latitudes, 
which, notwithstanding they are found dry enough for winter grain, 
and great crops are grown on them, when they are first cleared from 
their wood, become entirely too wet for crops of this description, 
after the animal and vegetable matters originally contained in 
them, have been greatly exhausted by ploughing and cropping. 
Some of these lands are covered with very large timber thickly 
set together. But there are also very extensive forests which are 
thinly covered with small white and other oak trees, and as scan- 
tily coveied with leaves and other vegetable matters, as they are 
with timber. 

" Any of these grounds, however, with but little care and atten- 
tion in the management of them, would for ever continue to grow as 
valuable crops of winter grain as any of the soils cultivated by us. 
" Yet this gentleman tells us ' Vegetable mould is not black muck, 
which has been only semi-putrified, owing to a want of sufficient 
heat in the soil. This want of heat in the soil and subsoil, and the 
strata underneath, are defective and unfriendly to vegetation. 
Trees may grow to a great height and enormous bulk on such 
land. But all the varieties of grain require a warm soil; and the 
best artificial grasses are far better, either as pasture or hay, grown 
on soils warm and dry enough for grain. Whenever then In a new 



350 

country we find an accumulation of muck, we may rest assured 
the eartli is of a cold nature; and whenever the muck is worn out 
•we cannot expect to succeed well, in growing any kind of grain.'* 

<' Now here I would first ask, whether we can rationally expect 
* to succeed well in growing any kind of grain,' after the soil has 
been ' worn out,' be the texture of it what it may ? Secondly, I 
ivould inquire how happened it ' that for the first five or ten years, 
no fields produced finer crops of wheat,' than did the plains or 
Tinmouth. For five to ten years, enough of this ' black muck,' on 
as I should call it, animal and vegetable matters, remained in the 
soil, to filter off the superabundance of moisture, and also to com- 
municate sufficient health and vigour to the- plants, to enable them 
to withstand the action of severe frost, through the winter and early 
part of the spring, which at those trying seasons, proves so destruc- 
tive to grain sown in the fall, when growing on retentive grounds 
where a sufficiency of nutritive matter does not obtain. We may, 
therefore, justly conclude that if the cultivators of the plains of 
Tinmouth had been as careful as nature was, while the grounds 
were solely managed by her, to keep them as well stored with ani- 
mal and vegetable matters as she did, we should have heard no 
complaint against the wet, cold, and retentive texture of this invalu- 
able soil. 

" It is, however, too well known to be controverted, that theset- 
tlers of new countries commonly continue ploughing and cropping, 
with but little attention to grass or manure, until the soil is so 
much reduced as to be incapable of producing valuable crops. 

" Where a happy mixture of the different earths prevails, no obsta- 
cle but absolute poverty can be presented to the growth of plants : 
consequently, such a soil, if equally rich in the beginning, will bear 
ploughing and cropping longer than soils which are either retentive 
of moisture or abound in sand. We, therefore, hear loud complaints 
as soon as the farmer has reduced his grounds so much, that an ex- 
cess of clay or other impervious substances oppose an excess of 
moisture, or sand a deficiency of it, to the growth of his cultivated 
crops. 

" This outcry is often raised against soils in the high lands, or 
higher latitudes, where an excess of moisture commonly prevails, 
while there still remains enough of animal and vegetable matters in 
the soil, when assisted by the natural humidity of it, and of the 
climate, to grow tolerable crops of the grasses. Hence it is, that the 
farmers in the vale of Tinmouth still 'say, they have a good grass 
soil.'t This is evidently seen here, in some of our highest, but still 
retentive grounds. After being so much exhausted by ploughing 
and cropping, as not to be capable of producing more than six or 
seven bushels to the acre of wheat sown in the fall, they have 
yielded tolerable crops of timothy when laid down in that grass. 
Now these very lands produced formerly good crops of wheat sown 

* See Pamphlet, page 2. t Wem, pag-e 5, 



351 

in the fall, and no question but they would have continued to do 
so still, if they had been properly farmed. 

" From what has been advanced, it would appear, that nature has 
rendered cold, retentive clay, and also sandy soils, when they 
are kept well stored with animal and vegetable matters, quite as 
fertile, and in fact more so, for the growth of such plants as are 
congenial with their texture, than is that happy mixture of the dif- 
ferent earthy ingredients which seems to be favourable to every 
plant, but not particularly so to any one of them. Nature certainly 
had something in view when she created such a diversity of soils, 
as they might have been all readily formed with one uniform tex- 
ture.* Why, then, should we complain against the earthy texture 
of any soil when it is evident that soils ot every texture are fertile, 
unless too much or too little animal and vegetable matters are 
mixed with them ? In either case the remedy is obvious, but in the 
latter case much more labour and attention are necessary to sup- 
ply the deficiency. When this deficiency, however, has been in- 
troduced by an irrational system of management, as certainly hap- 
pened in the plains of Tinmouth, there can be no just cause for 
complaint. 

*' But so little did the writer of this essay seem to know of the 
most simple, but at the same time, highly important operations of 
nature, that he says, *it would be curious and useful if some phi- 
losophical observer would explain the entire disappearance of this 
muck in the course of fifteen or twenty years without leaving a re- 
siduum. Twenty-five years ago, I ploughed fields on the Fin- 
mouth plains which had then a covering of six inches or more of 
this muck, and they had been cropped some ten or twelve years: 
these fields have now not one particle of muck or mould! What 
has become of it?' 

"The answer to this question is so very obvious that it really 
seems wonderful how the writer could attach so much consequence 
to it. The decomposable animal and vegetable matters contained 
in the 'muck' were consumed by the plants grown on the grounds, 
and the residuum mixed with the soil.f 

" I v;ill conclude with remarking that those * six inches or more 
of muck,' or, as I should call it, of animal and vegetable matters 
found in those grounds after * they had been cropped ten or twelve 
years,' clearly determines that their fertility might have been very 
easily preserved for ever, and that in place of hearing any com- 
plaint against the earthy texture of the plains of Tinmouth they 
might have been at this time justly considered among the most fer- 
tile lands in the State of Vermont. There is no art more simple 
than agriculture: still none seems to be more imperfectly under- 

* Why this great diversity of soils exists has been explained in my book on 
Manures and Veg-etation. , 

■j- This residuum, however, must have been very inconsiderable, as the sub- 
stances contained in the muck which were calculated to prepare the food for 
plants and to form their structure were also consumed by them. 



352 

stood. The cause of this is evident. Farmers have been very much 
bewildered by various inconsiderate and irrational theories; none 
of which seems to have been more extensively injurious than that 
chemists, philosophers and farmers have informed us, that nutri- 
ment for picints exists in substances which merely excite fertility 
by a hasty decomposition of the decomposable animal and vegetable 
matters found in the soil. These stimulating substances cannot, 
however, be permanently useful to agriculture, unless a due pro- 
portion of the vegetation excited by them be returned to the land. 

" I hope you will excuse the length of this communication, as the 
little I have yet to say, added to what has been already advanced, 
will be, if acted on, of more consequence to the agricultural inte- 
rests of Vermont, and the other eastern States, than can be readily 
imagined. 

" These States, like the Alleghany mountain, on which I have re- 
sided six years, present very serious obstacles to the growth of grain 
sown in the fall. Excessive cold and humidity kill the plants, 
when grown on soils, where a sufficiency of decomposable animal and 
vegetable matters does not obtain, to render the system, and the or- 
ganization of the plants robust and perfect. Plants, like animals, 
cannot live, when exposed to the vicissitudes of the severe incle- 
mency of those climates, after being starved and debilitated : espe- 
cially when con(it)ed where but little food can be obtained. Hence 
it is, that in those States, as well as here, spring wheat will succeed, 
so far as to produce tolerable crops, where wheat sown in the fall 
fails. 

" I am, however, willing to risk ray reputation as a farmer, and a 
man of truth, if grain sown in the fall does not prosper on the 
Alleghany mountain, and in the eastern States, as well as it does any 
where else : provided a suflBciency of animal and vegetable matters 
be judiciously applied, the soil properly cultivated, enough of seed 
sown, and the plants be laid dry, by properly water furrowing the 
land. I have seen this so often tried, where wheat sown in the 
fall could no longer prosper, in consequence of the animal and ve- 
getable matters formerly contained in the soil, being too much ex- 
hausted for the plants to find sufficient food to feed upon, that I 
tannot be mistaken." 



'P 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

On !)arns, cattle sheds, barracks, and hay savers. On the different ways by 
which cattle are fed and sheltered through tlie winter. 

xliNouGH has been already saiil on expensive barns and dwelling 
houses. The best mode of forming and conducting cattle yards 
has been also explained. 

A small barn is necessary, for threshing and various other pur- 
poses. It costs but little labour or money to erect a barn without 
the aid of a nail, or a particle of iron, where timber is a drug, if 
light round timber be "fleeted for the logs that form the walls. 
This course, therefore, snould be invariably pursued in recent set- 
llements, where labour, as well as money, is scarce. If such barns 
be properly constructed, with durable wood, they will last a long 
time ; provided the building be set high enough from the ground, 
and be underpinned with a wall of stone, which is readily laid by 
any man, without mortar. If the underpinning, however, be not 
sunk to a solid foundation, the house will sink, and the undermost 
logs rot in a very short time. This is the reason why log houses 
are reprobated. They are generally set on blocks of wood. These 
sink, and soon hasten into decay. The house sinks with them, and 
the undermost logs, sleepers, and floor, soon share the same fate. 
When this happens, the farmer says a log house is good for nothing, 
-Ithough the fault lies in him, and not in the house. I am now Ut- 
ag in a log house, built with white pine, about twenty-four years 
;go. It was set on blocks, and not far from the ground. The first 
ogs, sleepers, &c. were so much decayed that I was obliged to re- 
move the logs, and put others in their place. The remainder of 
the house is perfectly sound, and seems as if it might last a very 
long time. Now I do not know a single house, but one, built in the 
settlement, previously to my removal to it, which was not set on 
blocks of wood; of consequence, the under parts of most of them 
are now rotten. 

Barns are so generally well constructed in our older settlem'^nts 
''liat it would be superfluous to suggest any improvement in them. 
!'he useless ornaments and expensive materials, however, which 
nave been introduced by some gentlemen, ought to be avoided by 
all v/ho wish to establish the simple principles of genuine rural 
-conomy. The farmer's pride should rest in the display of luxuriant 
rops, obtained with the least possible expense: especially, if he 
be very rich, as his example might go \ccy far towards turning the 
tide of vanity into its proper channel. 

Barracks, when properly constructed, preserve either hay or grain 
•juite as well as barns, and the latter much better, so far as the de- 

Y y 



354 

pvcdalions commilled by rats and mice are Qoncerned. Some gen- 
tlemen believe that grain is not so subject to become mouldy, or 
otherwise damaged, even in stacks, if they be well thatched, as it 
is in barns. They say the superfluous moisture escapes more freely 
from the former. Be this, however, as it may, it is evident that botli 
hay and grain may be very advantageously and safely kept in bar- 
racks, if they be properly constructed and well thatched. 

When the roof is made to slide up and down, it leaks at the cor- 
ners, and without great care, is soon wrecked to pieces. When the 
posts stand in the ground they rot too soon. If mortised into sills 
the water gets into the mortise, and produces speedy decay. They 
are much more lasting when the posts stand on broad stones, thick 
enough to project six or eight inches above the ground, after being 
sunk deep enough into it to lie on a solid foundation. 

I have had them made thirty-six feet long, twenty feet wide, and 
twenty-two feet high, measuring up to the top of the upper plate. 
These require four posts on each side, set twelve feet apart. They 
are mortised into the two side plates : four joists extend across the 
top of the barrack, directly over the tops of the posts. These are 
notched, so as to let in the plates. Those at the ends answer in 
the place of plates. The posts are bound together by plates mor- 
tised into them, about ten feet below the upper plates along the 
sides and across the ends of the barracks, and also from post to 
post across the interior of it, at the same distance below the upper 
plate. Two braces extend from each post, up to the upper plates, 
and to the upper joist that extends across the ends, and one brace 
is extended from each post to the joist which extends across the 
top of the interior part of the barrack. The same number of braces 
are extended from the posts up to the lower plates and joist, which 
bind the sides, end, and middle of the barrack together. The braces 
lare dovetailed into the posts, plates, &c. and spiked fast to thera ; 
as the labour is less than if they were mortised and tenoned. It 
was also thought the water would be less subject to lodge, and they 
would be less liable to rot when put up in this way. The pitch of 
the roof is formed to close the ends, as the winds will affect the top 
of the barrack much less than if the gable ends were boarded up. 
The roof is thatched with rye or wheat straw. If this be properly 
done, it will last a long time, and be very valuable for littering the 
cattle yard when a new cover becomes necessary. Any farmer who 
can handle common tools will soon erect such a barrack from the 
stump. But where timber is valuable it should be all sawed. 

A barrack of this siae will store twenty tons of hay, or perhaps 
more. In a well settled mow, when not so high as this, eight feet 
square, or five hundred and twelve cubic feet will weigh a ton. It 
will require more cubic feet, at and near the top of the mow, to 
weigh a ton, but less are found sufficient at or near the bottom. The 
bottom may be formed of any kind of poles, split timber, or boards. 
It should, however, be raised a little distance from the ground, 
'•ither by stones or timber. This will permit the moisture arising 



355 

from the earth to escape. If this be confined, it will damage tiie 
bottom of the mow: it will also admit the cats to pass underneath it. 

If the barrack is intended for storing grain, the farmer should 
extend very strong joice across it, from post to post, two and a half 
feet above the level of the ground. The post ought to be capped 
just below the joists, in the way that will be described when the 
proper construction of a corn crib is explained. If this be properly 
done, no rat or mouse can get in among the grain unless careless- 
ness furnish the means for them to climb up into it. As the joists 
will be few, they ought to be let into the posts, so that the ends 
may have a bearing on th^ solid wood, otherwise the weight of the 
grain would break off the tenons. 

Some English farmers exclude mice and #ats from their grain 
stacks by erecting them on foundations or pillars made of cast 
iron, stone, or wood work properly capped : still, they have not 
been able to exclude them from their barns. The frequent inter- 
course of labourers renders it impossible to guard the doors so that 
these intruders cannot find an opportunity to enter- After they 
get in, the contents stored in the building seldom fail to furnish 
them with food and a secure retreat. The patient vigilance of the 
cat, however, will pursue and destroy them, if that animal be pro- 
perly managed. 

When hay or grain is put into the barrack, the first twelve feet 
between the posts should be first filled quite up to the top of it. 
After this the second and then the third divisions between the 
posts ought to be filled up in the same way. If the wliole extent 
be regularly filled damage may arise from driving rains before the 
barrack is filled; and the joists running across the interior of it will 
hinder the hay or grain from settling properly. The hay should 
be removed by cutting a small portion of it regularly from the top 
to the bottom, beginning at one end of the barrack. The grain 
should also be taken out by hand in the same way or damage may 
happen from driving rains or snows. If attention be given when 
the grain is put into the barrack it may be readily mowed so as to 
favour the proper removal of it. If the waggon cover be spread in 
the bed of the waggon when the grain is removed to the threshing 
floor but little will be lost if it be carefully loaded. 

When labourers are scarce, or the weather is dripping, it is often 
found diflicult to get the hay and grain hauled from distant fields 
and secured in time: therefore serious losses sometimes arise from 
these causes alone. The extra wages and liquors during harvest 
also increase the expense of a distant removal of the hay and grain. 
We likewise too often hear of ext^sive losses arising from fire be- 
ing communicated in various ways to the combustible substances 
in and about ihe barns. 

It would seem that if barracks were erected on such different 

})arts of the farm as would generally most favour the inning of the 
lay and grain, the time of harvest would be considerably short- 
ened, and the risk from wet weather greatly abridged. Tbe whore 



a5b 

Of the produce would not be subjected to one sweeping loss if fite 
should happen to take place. Be this, however, as it may, I can 
safely advise the farmer to place his barn yard establishment s6 
far distant from his dwelling that if the one should take fire the 
other in all probability might be saved. 

Here I beg to observe, that I have thought forming the barrack 
only sixteen feet high to the top of the upper plate would be a bet- 
ter plan than that adoptetl by me. One set of longer braces with- 
out any plates along the sides and ends or across the middle of the 
barrack would in this case be sufficient. The labour would be con- 
siderably abridged, and less injury from decay, as fewer places 
would be formed for water to lodge in. Those for storing grain 
Ti\ight in this case 1^ nineteen feet up to the top of the plate, as 
the joists running across them two feet and a half above the level 
of the ground would greatly strengthen the lower parts of them. 

Cattle and horses may be kept tied up in close stables without 
any apparent injury to them, provided the stalls be kept very clean. 
Doing this, however, together with keeping the stalls well littered 
and taking the animals to and from water, is tedious and laborious 
if it be properly done: especially as when they are confined they 
are compelled to lie down in their dung. It therefore requires 
much more labour to keep them clean than when they are sulfered 
to run at large in Well littered yards, and have open and well lit- 
tered sheds provided to screen them from the weather. Some 
farmers and graziers say that cattle do best when no shelter is 
provideij for them; but of this I am very doubtful. It may, how- 
ever, answer tolerably well when cattle have been accustomed to 
it, provided they are suffered to seek shelter for themselves in 
thickets, &c.: but b}' this practice the manure is lost. My cattle 
were injured by keeping them a part of one winter without shelter; 
but as I wished to save their dung they had no opportunity of 
seeking shelter for themselves. 

Waggoners who travel on the roads will not stable their horses 
even where it might be done without extra expense. They are 
hitched to the waggon, and fed and kept there through the most in- 
clement nights, after being heated by the labour of the day: yet if 
they be well fed and otherwise properly attended we do not per- 
ceive that they are injured by this practice: still as every animal 
■when at liberty seeks shelter from the inclemency of the weather, 
it would seem that the wa^rgoner's practice is not well calculated 
to promote the health and prosperity of his team, unless it be, that 
by exposing them uniformly they do not sutiier so much as they 
■would do by being occasionally%xposed. It therefore appears pro- 
bable that the middle course between this practice and that of fas- 
tening up the anim?l in a close stable ought to be pursued. The 
generally prevailing opinion among Pennsylvania farmers, is, that 
close, warm stables are best. 

There are, however, gentlemen of the first agricultural talents 
■who let their best horses run at large in yards where they may at 



357 

pleasure retire under the shelter of proper sheds, provided for that 
purpose. These gentlemen believe that the health and vigour of 
their horses arc greatly promoted by this practice. We all know 
that men whose business confines them much to the house, though 
it may be laborious, are not generally any thing like as healthy as 
those who are commonly exposed to the open air. It would also 
seem, that nature never had intended that cattle and horses should 
be kept closely confined in warm stables. 

Sheds are erected with little labour and expense. The back of 
them forms the cattle yard f^nce as far as they extend. If the posts 
be lasting the remainder of the timber may be of almost any kind 
of scantling or even poles. Sound half price boards will be good 
enough for the backs and ends of the sheds. I have seen even 
slabs very advantageously used for this purpose. The roof may 
be thatched, but unless the eaves be raised rather too high the cat- 
tle are apt to pull down the thatch. It is therefore best to extend 
a broad board lengthwise the eaves of the roof, or two narrower 
ones to lap, so as to run off the rains and to thatch the rest of the 
roof. When good thatches cannot be had, thin sound white pine 
boards will make a lasting and cheap covering for the barracks 
and sheds. ' 

In my observations on soiling I have described how the floors of 
the sheds should be formed. 

When cattle are kept through the night in stables and fed 
through the day in yards where no shelter is provided for them, 
moveable hay savers should be formed with a view to spread the 
rich manure over the yard, and also to save the hay from waste. 
Those savers should be four and a half feet wide, the length not ex- 
ceeding ten or eleven feet. If longer, they will be unhandy to re- 
move. If shorter, corn fodder cut off by the ground cannot be well 
put into them. The posts ought to be four feet three inches long 
to form the four corners of the saver. These are to stand erect., 
and to be united by rails framed into thera at the sides and ends. 
Two rails high all round will be sufficient for holding the hay, pro 
vided the top of the uppermost rail be two feet above the ground. 
The rails should be wide enough to prevent the cattle or horses 
from pulling out the hay from the vacancy left between them, oi 
from the space left between the bottom rail and the ground. 

To prevent the cattle from getting into the savers, rails should 
be framed in all round, near to the top of the posts, so as to leave 
eighteen inches between the rails below. This will be wide enougli 
for underlings to extricate their horns speedily when in danger of 
being injured by their superiors. The whole construction should 
be light, but strong enough to withstand the Exertions of the cattle 
when contending with each other. A bottom is not requisite, as a 
little clean straw spread upon the ground when the saver is re- 
moved to a fresh spot will be sufficient. 

In these, cattle eat immediately over their food without waste. 
Racks, like many other inventions connected with farming, have 



358 

been generally used from time immemorial, although they do not 
possess a single advantage. They are costly; and if the rounds 
are barely wide enough apart for cattle to get out the hay, much 
of it will be pulled down and trampled under their feet. They 
compel the cattle to assume an unnatural posture for feeding, even 
when the front of the rack is vertical. Grazing teaches us the na- 
tural posture for cattle and horses to feed at ease to themselves. 

This is obtained by using hay savers. Their eyes and nostrils 
are not affected by the seed and other small particles of the hay, 
or from the dust and sand, or other injurious substances that may 
be contained in it. They can readily pick out the hay without be- 
ing annoyed by briars, weeds and other substances offensive to 
their feeling or taste. 

In stables and under sheds hay savers may be about twenty -seven 
Inches wide. If the floor of the stable be made of wood it may 
constitute the bottom, if the seams be tight enough to hold short 
or chopped food. Boards six inches wide may form the front and 
back; above this, railing will suffice. 

By this very economical and expeditious mode of feeding either 
rattle or horses, the saving in hay is much greater than can be 
readily imaged by those who have not been in the practice of 
using savers. 

If racks be considered necessary, the saving in the hay will be 
the same if savers be constructed under them in the stables, and 
around those in the yards. The latter, with the racks, may be 
readily constructed so as to be moveable. If a light covering of 
boards be attached to the savers the hay in the yards will not be 
injured by rain. 

It was soiling that first suggested the idea of hay savers to me. 
I found that the cattle quickly pulled down under their feet the 
grass fed to them in the same racks that were used for feeding hay 
to them. It seems the grass while green is much more slippery 
than when it is dried into hay. 

To prevent this great waste, posts that had been rotted off by 
the ground were sunk into the earth at proper distances from the 
four corners of the rack standing in the yards, and common rails 
inserted in two holes left in each post above the ground for that 
purpose. As these savers remained until feeding with hay com- 
menced, it was soon observed that the saving in that article by the 
means of this simple and very cheap contrivance was amazingly 
great. The horses and cattle ate the hay which they pulled down 
into the savers as readily as that remaining in the racks. Since 
that time tlie savers without the racks have been preferred by me. 

Worn out posts, if broad rails be selected, will make the cheapest 
savers for the sheds, and answer the purpose equally as well as if 
they had cost the farmer much more labour and money, provided 
-dry fodder or grasls' alone he fed to the cattle where they are used. 



CHAPTER XXXVr. 

Matheroatical precision, necessary to a highly improved husbandry. 

IvANDOM practices in agriculture, have been found sufficient to 
procure a tolerable, but at the same time, precarious supply of the 
fruits of the earth. Mathematical precision has, therefore, been too 
much neglected. Farmers generally ridicule, and violently oppose 
every essay made by men of reflection, to reduce the practice of 
husbandry to any regularity, which depends on accurate calcula- 
tion. 

Infinitely more injury, however, has been done by the violent op- 
position made, not only to the system of the drill husbandry, intro- 
duced by Jethro TuU, but also to the improvements that have been 
made by others, on the inventions of that truly ingenious gentleman. 
This has been done by gentlemen whose opinions on agricultural 
subjects were very popular, and whose talents, (if they had notbeea 
blinded in the first instance by an inconsiderate prejudice, and se- 
condly, too obstinate to acknowledge error, after it seems to have 
been clearly seen by them,) were more than sufficient to have disco- 
vered that the practice of agriculture can never be perfect, until it 
be governed by mathematical precision : so far at least, as this may 
be attainable. The nearer we approach to this only perfect rule of 
practice, the greater the improvement will be. 

The celebrated Arthur Young, in his Rural Economy, is much op- 
posed to the drill husbandry. He seems after this, however, to be 
clearly convinced of his error, and makes various elforts to back out. 
This is at best, an awkward retrograde motion. It would have beea 
greatly in favour of agriculture, and would have done honour to 
himself, if he had boldly wheeled round and candidly acknowledged 
his mistake : while he was tardily backing out step by step, those 
who relied on his judgment, could not readily determine what course 
they ought to take. 

It is an old saying, that " guess work is best when it hits right." 
It can, however, be no otherwise so, than as far it may happen to 
save expense, and the trouble of rational investigation. It leaves 
the practitioner nearly, or quite as ignorant of the principles that ope- 
rated in his favour, as he was before the fortunate occurrence took 
place. If he be called to explain the means that should be pursued 
by others to attain the same end, but little, if any, correct informa 
tion can be obtained from him. This is one powerful reason why it 
is so exceedingly difficult to communicate agricultural practices, so 
as to be clearly understood. 



360 

It is the power of mathematical demonstration'that ennobles the 
inintl of man. Strip him of this, and he is little superior to the horse 
he rides or drives. It is by the diligent practice of this natural or 
inherent principle, that even the illiterate sometimes achieve im- 
provement, that would do honour to the talents of the learned. 

No art can be perfectly practised without the aid of exact calcu- 
lation. There are, however, some of the arts that seem to depend 
principally for accurate proportion on the imagination, assisted by 
the senses: still these are but few, when compared with the whole. 

Almost every mechanical employment has its measures, gauges, 
&c. formed by exact mathematical calculation. There is no art tlwt 
requires more assistance from correct calculation than agricul- 
ture, and none that is capable of being more highly improved by it. 

We know but little of the proper depth for planting and sowing 
the different seeds, or of the space which should be allowed for dif- 
ferent plants. There can be no doubt, however, that the proper 
depth and space actually exists in nature. Therefore, if they were 
known to us, and we possessed proper and ready means of sowing, 
planting and cultivating with mathematical precision, the produce 
would very greatly exceed the present general opinion on that sub- 

A deficiency of proper instruments renders it impossible to effect 
this purpose very extensively at present. Still a great deal might 
be done in these parts of our country, where stumps and other ob- 
stacles to a regular system of husbandry do not obtain, and time, 
with an increased population, will remove tlie greater part of them. 

Agriculturists have already invented several instruments that 
execute planting, sowing and cultivating many plants with sufficient 
accuracy. Some of these are simple and cheap enough to render 
the use of them extensively advantageous, if they were brought int'j 
general practice. The form of them is calculated to suggest ideas 
and plans, from which other instruments may be made for other 
purposes. One improvement is commonly followed by another 
This would, therefore, naturally lead to the construction of instru- 
ments^ which would enable cultivators to execute all their agricul- 
tural purposes with mathematical precision, provided due attention 
be given to this highly important subject. 

The heavy and unwieldy wheel ploughs, which are used by some 
British cultivators, are very exceptionable. There are, however, 
other ploughs of this description, that are light and well formed 
Notwithstanding the wheel naturally causes some resistance, the tri 
vial disadvantage arising from this, cannot be equal to the immense 
advantage to be derived from a uniformity in the depth of plougli- 
ing; especially as this uniformity makes the weight of the draugL.'; 
regular. This renders it at least very doubtful, whether horses or oxei . 
are even as much jaded by the use of wheels, as they are without 
AVithout theni vastly more care and labour are necessary than I havo 
ever seen encountered, even by those who drive their own team-, 
except for a spirt, to effect a reguJar depth of ploughing, when 



361 

wheels are not used. In this case the depth too commonly deviates in 
due proportion to the inequalities which may happen to be in the sur- 
face. Th''-;, when the plough is passing through a hollow spot in 
the field, it often does but little more than skim the surface; 
Avhilc it too often sinks nearly beam deep when passing through the 
rise just beyond it. What commonly makes the matter worse, is, 
that the rising grounds are generally the poorest and the hollows 
the richest parts of the field. The great deviation in depth, often 
requires considerable exertions in the cattle to get through; conse- 
quently tires and worries them much more than a regular draught.* 

Since springs have been introduced ta weigh the draught of the 
plough, and plough races have become fashionable in England, some 
gentlemen in that country have laid aside their wlieel ploughs, to 
avoid the resistance introducecl by the wheel. This may bo very 
proper when racing is the object, as sportsmen tell us, that even a 
single pound often makes a great difference on such occasions. So 
far, however, as agriculture is concerned, it se?ms to be giving up 
a substantial good, to avoid an evil, which if it does exist at all, is 
trivial, and which it would appear exists only in the imagiuatioo, so 
far as farming may be concerned. 

An expert ploughman, with a well brrtlce pair of horses, will, while 
he is running one of these races, perform ploughing to a regular 
depth without the aid of a wheel: still it is not to be expected that 
he or any other person will daily encounter the excessive labour 
necessary to plough to a regular depth without a wheel. 

In fact, gentlemen of the first agricultural talents in England, say 
that the best ploughing done in that country is performed where 
wheel ploughs are used. There are also other very great advan- 
tages attached to them. When the wheel plough is well set, an 
ordinaiy ploughman can do good work ; and even a lazy man ha' 
but little temptation to slight his work, as his labour is greatly- 
abridged. 

Notwithstanding a regular depth of ploughing is highly important, 
it is of little cons'equence when compared with the immense ad- 
vantages that naturally arise from placing seed at proper depths in 
the soil, arranging plants at proper distances on it, and introducing 
such implements of husbandry as are calculated to cultivate them 
with the least possible expense. 

Correct mathematical arrangement in the mechanical arts, has, 
in numerous instances, simplified and rendered the labour so easy, 
that a boy or a girl can do much more and better work than was 
formerly done by an active and well instructed man. We, there- 
fore, have every reason to believe that the same saving of labour 
would as extensively take place in our agricultural concerns, if 
care and attention were alike given to introduce the same correct 
svstem of management. 

* It should be recollected, that if the beam of the plough be uselessly long', 
•^vhich very often liappens, and the wheel be fixed too far before the couller, the 
sudden rises and hollo'A- places m the field will not be ploughed to a regular 
.depth, 

7<7. 



362 

The American wheat drill seems to be as simple and cheap as it 
IS possible to construct an instrument of this kind. We have no 
engravers here, therefore a plate of this very valuable instrument, 
or indeed of any of the other instruments recommended in this 
work, cannot be annexed. Such observations on them, however, as 
may be considered useful, will be made. There is a plate of this 
drill, in the third volume of the Memoirsof the Philadelphia Agricul- 
tural Society. It is also described in the " Transactions of the So- 
ciety of Arts in New York." 

I got the one used by me from Downingtown, in this State, where 
it was made. It is said to have been originally invented in Sussex 
county. New Jersey. It may be still made there unless it has been 
laid aside, which is by no means improbable, as I have never heard 
of the grain sown by it, being either covered or horse hoed, although 
both may be readily and well done with the same instrument. 
Towing ill drills, without cultivating the plants, will do more harm 
than good, it is exactly calculated to let in more weeds and confine 
the roots of the plants too close together, unless those disadvantages 
be counteracted by a proper cultivation. So, however, it generally 
happens among farmers. They are certainly as capable of exer- 
cising their reason as "any other set of men in the world:" still, 
they are too apt to believe that agriculture is so well understood 
by them, that the use of this faculty is seldom necessary in the ex- 
ecution of any of the business connected with it. They should, 
however, recollect, that notwithstanding the practice of " hus- 
bandry" is really very simple, and readily understood, it will most 
assuredly continue to be, what it has ever yet been, to wit: a mix- 
ture of complicated absurdities, vvhich no man can understand, un- 
til " nature and reason be harmonized in the practice of it." But 
to return. 

The merit of the wheat drill consists in the simplicity of its con- 
struction. The leathern bottom to the seed hopper forms the prin- 
cipal superiority of it. This renders brushes and complication use- 
less. Yet I have not observed that the seed is bruised, or the delivery 
of it irregular or uncertain. It came to me with a tongue, but finding 
two horses useless, a pair ofold cart shafts were fixed to it. One horse, 
a man and an active, but small boy were found sufficient to 
drill at the rate of six acres per day. The boy leads the horse. 
The man walking behind the drill observes the delivery from the 
funnels, least any thing accidentally mixed with the seed, should 
retard or slop the progress of it : also to clear away from the coul- 
ters, any rubbish that may gather, when it is likely to stop the fun- 
nels. This is best done with a very light handy pole, sharpened at 
the point, and an upright thumb, formed by a branch cut ofFnear the 
point. With this instrument and proper attention, the horse need 
not stop until the through is performed. If an occasional stump 
happens to be in the way, the drill is readily lifted over this by the 
man, while the harrow is going on. At the end of each through, the 
boy turns the horse, while the man, with ease, lifts up the drill bo- 



363 

tlUy, and sets the wheel in the track of the last formed outside fur- 
row. He at the same time takes care to place it far enough back into 
the head land, for the grain to have time to run down the funnels 
and to commence delivery at the proper place. The horse should 
not be stopped until the through has been performed, as the seed 
delivered from the axle, previously to stopping, will run down, and 
the whole will be deposited immediately under the funnels, [f an 
unavoidable accident makes it necessary to stop the horse before the 
through is performed, the drill must be lifted up, and the horse 
backed sufficiently for the funnels to commence delivery at the pro- 
per place, or there will be a vacancy left unsown. 

The person from whom I purchased the drill, thought it would 
sow more than one bushel to the acre. It was, however found to 
sow but little more than three pecks per acre. The notches in the 
axle, were made large enough to sow two bushels per acre. 

The farmers who have u^d this drill, say that the falling in of 
the soil after the coulters, forms a sufficient covering for the seed ; 
that the mouldering down of the soil through the winter, is benefi- 
cial to the crop. In this they are, however, much mistaken. My 
grounds were level and in fine tilth, yet the trivial inequalities in the 
surface, were sufficient to prevent some of the coulters from sinking 
sufficiently deep for the mould to fall into the furrows and cover 
the grain, while the rest of the coulters went quite deep enough 
for the soil to fall into the furrows and cover the grain superfi- 
cially. 

A rake attached to the hinder part of the drills so as to rise and 
fall, butjiot to swerve from side to side, will, if properly construct- 
ed, cover the seed. The method pursued by me to effect this purpose, 
was extending a light fence rail across the drills, and dragging it by 
a horse up and down the lands. This seemed to be awkward work ; 
it was, however, tolerably expeditious, and co^nsidered much better 
than leaving a good deal of the seed entirely uncovered, and expos- 
ing the plants to the running, settling and freezing of the water in 
the drills through the winter, which cannot be otherwise than very 
injurious to them. 

The coulters of this drill were formed of wood, and shod with 
sheet iron. Yet four of them fixed properly in it, answered every 
purpose for which they were designed. I had the shanks of four 
hoes belonging to an old hoe harrow lengthened. These fastened 
into the mortises in which the coulters were fixed for forming the 
drills, answered well for horse hoeing the grain plants. 

It was found very easy to regulate the hoes so that they would 
either skim the surface of the soil, or cultivate it much deeper than 
prudence would suggest. The horse in walking, straddles one of 
the rows of wheat: a man leading him will horse hoe more acres 
per day than he could drill with the same tool. Some clods and 
stones will be turned on the plants, therefore labourers should fol- 
low to remove the obstacles, and pull up such weeds and grasses, as 
may happen to grow among the plants. A proper rake should be 



364 

fixed to the hinder part of the drill, in the way that has been de- 
scribed above, to overturn and destroy such weeds as the hoes may 
have cut off under the soil, but which had not been overturned or 
suflficiently mangled by them. 

The grass seeds should be sown just before the last horse hoeing, 
and the rake attached to the drill will cover theui effectually. The 
hoes should not be suffered to dip any deeper than is absolutely ne- 
cessary to eradicate grasses and weeds* The cultivations ought to 
cease before the plants become large. 

A triangular form is best for the hoes ; the coulters to which they 
are attached should be sharp in front and point. If this drill is 
made by a plough maker, it ought not to cost as much as a common 
swing plough. Any farmer, however, who can use tools tolerably, 
may make it for himself, if he first gets the axle turned true, out 
of hard seasoned wood, which will not spring. The funnels are com- 
monly made of wood or sole leather; J^n, however, is much better, 
as the grain is heard running down it, and being smooth, the grain 
is not so liable to be stopped in its progress. 

Here 1 ought to observe, that water furrows should be formed at 
proper distances by the common plough, previously to the drilling 
of the seed. If this be not done, heavy rains and melting snows 
will greatly wash away the soil and plants with it. If cross furrows 
be found necessary in low places, hollows or hill sides, they should be 
formed immediately after the seed is drilled by the long plough, and 
also opened by the same instrument every time the plants are culti- 
vated and regulated by manual labour, so that the water will stop in 
no part of them. 

I beg leave to observe, that maize, beans, &c. may be readily 
dropped in clusters at any desirable distance apart, in rows, by an 
instrument of the same simple construction as the drill just men- 
tioned, also, covered by a rake, formed so as to effect this purpose, 
without displacing the seed. In that case the wheels ought to be 
very low, and neither funnels nor any other thing should intervene 
to prevent the grain from dropping immediately from the notches 
in the axle, into the furrows formed by the coulters for the recep- 
tion of it. 

An instrument may also be readily formed on the same princi- 
ples, for striking out with great despatch, narrow right angles, with 
furrows formed in them for planting. 

Mr. Bordley certainly invented, and reduced to practice, a very 
simple and cheap machine for dropping beans, and another for drop- 
ping wheat in clusters. Except the leathern bottom to the seed hop- 
per, (which is a very great improvement,) the principles seem to 
have been much the same, as those on which the wheat drill is 
formed. 



CHAPTER XXXVIL 

On the hoe han*ow. A simple gauge for dropping corn, beans, Sec. in clusters. 
On the corn crib. On Uie shovel plough. On the skim. 

1 HE hoe harrow is formed triangularly, and should have handles: 
the smaller siae ought to have three triangular hoes, supported by 
coulters, sharp in front and point ; and five for the larger size. 
They should be so formed and fixed as to effectually cut all the 
ground to the extent of their spread. 

If wheels be added, they will insure any desirable depth 
with perfect regularity, and very great ease to those who use theni. 
The wheels may be readily made with thick hard plank, dubbed so 
as to form naves and rims. When the cultivator, however, can spare 
the money, it will be found far best to have proper light wheels 
with spokes and boxes, and shod with iron, as they will be more rea- 
dily handled, and last much longer. 

Implements of this description, and sometimes very expensively 
formed, are extensively used by some British farmers : if my memory 
be correct, they are called shufflers or cultivators. This excess in 
size, however, should be avoided by us ; they spread over too much 
ground to effect good cultivation in the uneven surface of what may, 
in any country, be justly considered very level fields. In fact, no- 
thing is gained by aiming to do more, than can be properly executed. 

The wide spread of common harrows, united together by joints, 
intended to calculate them to rise and fall, so as to move in unison 
with the inequalities of the surface, is a burlesque on common sense;, 
especially, as the plates furnish correct engravings of the contri- 
vances made to4iitch double sets of horses to different parts of this 
unwieldly mass of absurd and ineffectual complication ; which, to be 
the better explained, has the track of each tooth carefully lined and 
numbered, with elaborate notes of explanation and observation on 
the very superior usefulness and great expedition of the imple- 
ment. 

Now as two waggons fastened side by side pretty much in the 
same way, and furnished with double sets of horses, will certainly 
carry a much heavier load than one waggon, with only one set of 
horses. I do not see why we ought not to be furnished, also, with 
an engraving of this improvement, and with an exact description of 
all its very advantageous movements. 

Time and memory fail me, or I would expose the vast number of 
complicated, expensive and highly injurious contrivances which 
have been published, and warmly recommended to farmers. 

it is these things which have induced the plain and practical far- 



366 

mer to set his face against even real improvement that has the least 
appearance of complication attached to it. 

Complication generally introduces weakness ; it has, therefore, 
been powerfully urged by Arthur Young, and other opposers to the 
drill husbandry, in England, that such complicated instruments 
were unfit to be put into the hands of rugged and inconsiderate 
workmen, who would soon break them to pieces. The engraving 
and description of the wheat drills used in England, seem to be ve- 
ry complicated and expensive. Time, however, has convinced ma- 
ny farmers there, that this expensive complication does not hinder 
them from being safely and very advantageously used. 

It would seem as if complication and expense had been studious- 
ly avoided in the American drill; still all its parts, at first sight, 
appear to be suJSiciently strong except the wheels. The construc- 
tion of them seems to indicate that the inventor either knew that 
the apparent weakness of them, would not prevent the usefulness 
of the instrument, or false economy governed his practice in the 
formation of them ; they are made little stronger than the big 
wheel commonly used for spinning cotton and wool, and much in 
the same way, without any iron to defend the rim. 

The plough used by me, however, had been several years in use 
at Downingtown, before I purchased it, and the owner of it inform- 
ed me that his grounds were rather stony for drilling. I believe, 
however, that it would be best to form the rim of the wheel with iron, 
in place of a wooden hoop, and that some of the other parts of the 
plough are heavier than necessary. Here I beg leave, however, to 
remark, that any material deviation from the cheap mode of con- 
structing this instrument, cannot fail of being very injurious to the 
interest of agriculture. For as it now stands, every farmer who 
wishes to use it, can, without any serious inconvenience, either 
make or obtain it. Therefore, gentlemen farmers should be very 
careful not to saddle this invaluable instrument, with expensive 
improvements. 

A simple gauge for dropping corn, beans, &c. in dusters, may be 
made thus: cut an alder stock of about one inch in diameter, just 
below a limb, which will serve for a handle ; hollow it out above to 
hold the number of grains to be dropped in each cluster, paring the 
upper edge thin, so that the grain will not lodge on it. With this, 
and a small basket, a little boy or girl, may drop three times more 
clusters than a man in the usual way, and more correctly. It is bet- 
ter to scatter the seed a little ; when this is done, birds and quad- 
rupeds do not so readily get the whole from any one cluster, as when 
they lie close together, and the supernumerary plants are pulled 
up, the roots of those which remain, are not so much injured by this 
operation; neither are the plants that ought to remain anything 
like as apt to be pulled up with those which are removed, as their 
roots will be less entwined. They also grow faster, by being only a 
little separated from each other ; especially if the whole of the seed 
should happen to vegetate and come up. Beans, as well as maiz«» 



367 

are subject to be cut off by the grub : they, therefore, should not 
be thinned until after danger from this intruder has passed by. 

I can suggest no improvement in the form of our best construct- 
ed corn cribs, when built in a dry climate, except that too many 
take no effectual measures to exclude rats and mice. After these 
intruders get in, they find a plenty of food and shelter from their 
pursuers, until the corn is removed. 

To determine the number of bushels which any given space will 
contain; first, calculate the number of cubic feet, from which de- 
duct one fifth, and the remainder will be the number of bushels ; at 
least near enough to show the size of the crib. As corn, however, 
shrinks considerably in the crib, especially in high latitudes, where 
it very often carries in much moisture with it, a proper allowance 
ought to be made for this. 

In high latitudes the building should be wide enough to admit a 
passage through the middle of it, with a crib for the corn on each 
side of it. Those ought not, on any consideration, to be wider than 
three feet in the clear. They ought to maintain the same width from 
the bottom to the top of them. The height of them up to the top of 
the building, may be seven or eight feet. above the floor. The lath- 
ing for the outside should not be more than one inch and a quarter 
or one inch and a half wide, and the distance between as wide as it 
may be left consistent with excluding such birds as are in some situ- 
ations, apt to get into cribs, and destroy mucli of the corn. The 
door should also be formed with lathing so far as this may be done. 
As the object is to make the house as airy as possible, the bottom of 
the cribs and also of the passage, should be floored with lath : 
these should be stronger. The lathing on the sides of the cribs 
next to the passage should also be narrow, and the space between 
the laths, as wide as it may be left, without letting the ears pass 
through it, extending the height of them from the floor up to the 
plate of the house. The pitch of the roof will give room to put the 
corn in from the passage, and also allow sufficient scope for air be- 
tween it and the corn. The length of tiie building can only be de- 
termined by the quantity of corn which is to be stored in it. If that 
be considerable, a door at each endof the building will save labour in 
putting in and taking out the ears. The roof should have the same 
pitch down the plate at the ends as it has at the sides. 

To exclude driving rains and snov/s,* as well as it may be conve- 
niently done, the eaves of the roof should extend about four feet 
from the body of the house, at the ends as well as at the sides of it. 
The pitch of this projection or offset in the roof, ought to be incon- 
siderable ; for the more it droops, the more will the air be excluded. 
It should be supported by short braces running out from the sides 

• 

• The driving in of rain and snow In dr}' climates, seldom proves injurious. 
In wet climates, however, it is otherwise. It really seems more difficult to 
save corn in tliem, than it is to make it; especially if goui-dseed forms part of 
the variety ; but even the hardest varieties carry much ntoisture into the cj-ib. 



368 

and eiuU of the building; the roof may be thatched, provided it be 
well done. ■». 

To prevent the bad efFects of moisture from the ground, set the 
building on posts at least four feet above the level of the earth.* 
To exclude mice and rats, cap each post all round, just underneath 
the bottom of the crib, with boards ten inches wide, and smoothly 
planed, fitting the ends of the four corners of the cap, where they 
meet, very closely together, and drooping the outer edges of the 
caps three inches lower than where they are nailed fast to the post. 
Neither rats nor mice were ever seen in my corn crib capped in this 
way. Some care, however, is necessary to prevent carelessness from 
furnivshing the means by which these intruders may climb up into 
the crib. The posts should be cut oft' square at their lower ends, 
and set on stones, in the same way as recommended for barrack 
posts to stand. Here it may be proper to observe, that the stoties 
on which my corn crib was set, were neither wide nor thicTc. The 
consequence was, that the rats burrowed under them while the crib 
was full of corn, and gradually settled to one side, until it fell, with 
eighteen or nineteen hundred bushels of corn in the ear, in it. The 
crib, in falling, was so shatl^ered to pieces as to be rendered useless. 
This seems to determine that the stones used for this purpose, should 
be large, and sunk to a considerable depth in the ground. If the 
posts be sunk into the ground, they rot much sooner than the rest 
of the building 

Very little need be said of the shovel plough, except that the 
shovel should be formed for no purpose so lean at the point as it is 
used by some farmers. A full point cuts up the ground much more 
effectually, and does far better and more expeditious work, between 
and among the superficial roots of trees. 

For the shallow cultivation of plants which has been recommended 
by me, the point should be formed still fuller, more like the half of 
a'circle, than it is made for any other purpose ; for unless the point 
be made wider, in proportion to the upper part of the shovel, it will, 
without great care and trouble, dip by far too deep. 

The beam and handles necessary for the skim are very similar 
to those for a light swing plough. The hoe or share is triangular, 
somewhat like that recommended for the hoe harrow, an»l the coul- 
ter also sharp in front and point. 

In forming the share for the skim, or the hoes for the hoe harrow, 
wino-s of sufficient width and strength are best. These should 
com^nence at the point where the coulter is fixed, and extend far 
eiiou«-h back. This will leave a considerable opening between the 
wings; especially at the hinder part of them. When formed in this 
viAy, thev may be set so as to perform the work better than if the 
shares or hoes we^je solid ; some weight of iron will also be saved. 

The share or hoe for the skim may also be eighteen inches long, 
And twelve inches wide behind. Or it may be increased in width 

• These posts should form a part of the building by running up to the \iv 
per plate of it ; into which they ought to be mortised. 



869 

and length, to suit the intervals between the plants : provided the 
size of it be not extended too far. 

A rake with strong tines attached to the hinder part of the im- 
plement, in the way that has been described for fixing a rake to the 
drill, wil! answer the purpose of a tined harrow following it. 

A rake of the same description attached to the hinder part of 
the small hoe harrow will save the labour of its being followed by 
the tined harrow when corn or other crops are cultivated by it, un- 
less the ground be very needy. 



S A 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

On hedges. 

Ok the necessity of hedges in our older settlements much has 
been judiciously said. Many plants that are calculated to form 
them have been pointed out. I shall therefore say but little on 
this subject. 

Where soiling is practised the expense of inside fencing to pro- 
tect the hedge from cattle, &c. may be saved. Where the line 
divides the fields of an adjoining neighbour who does not soil his 
cattle, if he will admit the dead division fence to stand on his 
grounds the expense of a protecting fence will be saved. 

Banking and ditching are very injurious as well as very expen- 
sive. A very considerable space is occupied by them which might 
be much better employed. The construction of them is exactly 
calculated to retard the growth of the plants, and to render the 
cultivation of them tedious and expensive. There are a multitude 
of plants that will make an impenetrable fence without the aid of 
bank or ditch If a manured fallow crop of sufficient width be 
grown along the line of the hedge before it is planted, the weeds 
and grasses will be greatly crippled, and many of them destroyed ; 
the grounds will be enriched to excite the speedy growth of the 
hedge. This may be constantly kept free from grass and weeds 
by the hoe and tined harrow, and hand hoers following them, until 
the hedge is fully formed ; after which, the shade and the fall of 
the foliage will keep the grass and weeds under in the line with it. 

It seems to be throwing money away to plant a hedge in a poor 
soil, and leave it to be overrun and choked with grasses and weeds. 
We have, however, too many sad specimens of this mode of manage- 
ment : yet it is to be feared too many of these instances will appear 
hereafter; for a hedge requires great attention until it is com- 

f>letely established. If, after this be done, proper care be not regu- 
arly given to pruning, &c. it soon becomes an unseemly mass of 
useless vegetation. 

Evergreen hedges have a beautiful appearance in the winter: 
when a deathlike and dreary sleep has put an apparent stop to ve- 
getation, and destroyed almost every green thing, the sight of an 
evergreen cheers the mind. Nature seems to have formed them to 
be emblems of eternal youth. When covered with sleet or snow, 
thr rays of the sun exhibit a silvered surface throughout the whole 
length of the hedge richly inlaid with an enchanting green. It is 
true, thift lovely appearance is transitory, but so are most of the 
enjoyments of man. The green, however, still remains to sQQth 



371 

the eye. It is said that the red cedar forms an excellent hedge* 
The same is also said of the spruce pine. The numerous and small 
limbs of this tree seem well calculated to be trained and wattled 
in between the bodies of the plant so as to form a fence which no 
domesticated animal can either penetrate or jump over. Some say 
that good fences are formed with the white pine. No question 
but it or any of the pines grown in this country will form an ex- 
cellent fence. The holly, though slow in its growth, forms a beau- 
tiful compact hedge. 

It would, however, seem, if we may believe all that is said in 
the third volume of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural 
Society of the pyracantha, an evergreen thorn, as a very valuable 
plant for forming hedges, that it should be used for this purpose in 
preference to any other evergreen known to us. The writer, after 
describing its useful properties, says, " I have said nothing of the 
beauty of pyracantha hedges, that being only a secondary consi- 
deration; nevertheless, few of the vegetable tribes can exhibit in 
the fall a more splendid display of beauty than the vast profusion 
of its clustered berries among the empurpled foliage of the plants 
particularly as it appears before the eye that pursues the long con- 
tinued perspective riband of it in a hedge-rovT." 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

On cats. 

1 HIS animal, wVien properly managed is very useful to the farmer- 
His houses, barns, &c. are often infested with rats and mice, iiis 
trees, grasses and crops of various kinds are frequently injured by 
ground mice, squirrels and other small quadrupeds. Nature seems 
to have formed the domesticated cat for the express purpose of sub- 
duing and destroying those intruders, so far as it may be done. 

It, however, appears, that as the support of many of the larger and 
more powerful animals, depends on the existence of those which are 
continually pursued and destroyed by them, nature has wisely li- 
mited their power, vigilance and sagacity, so that a sufficient rem- 
nant of the weaker animals always escapes, to propagate and keep 
up the various races to which they belong. 

It therefore seems useless to attempt the entire destruction of 
many of the different races of animals, as they are necessary to the 
well being and support of the whole. It would appear, however, 
that population, while it favours the general destruction of some 
kinds of wild animals, is very favourable to the extensive propaga- 
tion of other classes of them. 

Thus, some birds and quadrupeds are only to be seen where popu- 
lation exists, and increase with it; while others which are plentiful 
in our forests, and other lonely wilds, dwindle as population ex- 
tends, and decrease until they seem to be entirely destroyed; ex- 
cept in some few places which happen to be well calculated to hide 
and secure them from the ingenuity of man. 

This settlement was formed In tlie interior of an extensive and 
lonely forest. It was more than twenty miles to the nearest inha- 
bitant. For several years no rat was seen in it. It is said that the 
first seen here, came in a waggon load of goods. Be this, however, 
as it may, they are now as plentiful as 1 have ever seen them any 
where. Some few partridges and crows have also found their way 
here. 

When I first moved into the houses where I have lived since I 
came to this place, we were not troubled with rats. The former 
occupant had kept cats. It was not very long, however, before they 
became very numerous, and did much injury. They were so very 
plenty that my boys killed fifty-six in the course of two days, by 
searching out their dens and hiding places. 

Before I proceed furtl^er, it may be proper to remark, that the 
common house cat, brought up in the back-woods, is aarly taught to 
depend on its own energy for its support. It is, of consequence, 
not enervated by sloth, on the contrary, it is very vigilant, always 



373 

engaged in pursuing, or patiently watching its prey. The cause of 
this is readily explained: the settlers of new countries are in ge- 
neral very poor^ They have but too often little provisions for them- 
selves; tnerefore, the animals I: apt by them, are early taught to 
shift for themselves in all cases where it can be done. 

I procured a cat of this description from a neighbour living about 
three miles from my house. The animal was fastened up two pr 
three days in my garret, to accustom it to the house. After this, 
it was suffered to run at large through it. In a short time we were 
not troubled with rats. Some person, however, killed my cat, and 
the house became as much infested with rats as it had ever been. 
Another cat was procured, and the rats were either banished or de- 
stroyed : in a short time as this cat was also killed, the house was 
again infested by rats and much injury done by them ; another cat 
was procured and the result has been the same. We are not in- 
jured by rats. 

The first crop of wheat grown by me here, was extensively in- 
jured by rats. They were so plentiful that it was common to see 
three or four of them come up in the day, through the holes which 
had been made by them in the cabin floors, and scout about while 
the people were sitting in the room. 

Two cats were procured and sent to the farm, with .strict orders 
to give them nothing to eat, and to keep every kind of provision out 
of their way. They so far destroyed the rats that we did not ob- 
serve they had done any injury to the crops of the ensuing year, 
although stored in the same barn. 

One of my neighbours, who had taken a dislike to cats, shot all 
that appeared on his premises, and nearly one-third of his wheat 
crop was destroyed by rats. 

When my people removed to another farm, the cats were so wild 
that they could not be caught : consequently were left behind. My 
cats, however soon abandoned the premises, and found their way 
through the woods, to the house of a neighbouring farmer. Many 
facts have clearly determined that, be the cats wild or tame, they 
will not stay on any farm where no human being is living. 

No rats appeared at first, on the farm to which my people had 
removed. It was not long, however, before they became plentiful, 
but a single cat being introduced, serious injury from them, did not 
occur. 

The cat should be kept wild, and never suffered to enter the 
farmer's house or kitchen until after the family has gone to rest. 
After this, however, they should have full scope, wherever they 
may be useful. When game becomes scarce, as it does sometimes 
in winter, sufiicient food should be left where they can readily get 
at it. 

When the rats and mice fail, in and near the farmer's dwelling, 
the cats will traverse every part of the farm, in quest of moles, 
ground mice, squirrels, rabbits, &c. These smaller quadrupeds, 
with many birds, are the ready victims of its active prowess, or pa- 



374 

tient vigilance, unless the carelesness or ill judged benevolence of 
the family, weaken or destroy the native energies of this invaluable 
animal, by supplying it with food, when this can be readily obtain- 
ed, by its own talents and industry. 

The cat, when properly ordered, is the surest and best defence 
the farmer can make, to save his trees and crops from the depreda- 
tions committed on them by the smaller quadrupeds. 

The cat neither burrows, nor gnaws into mischief. Nothing can 
be easier than to prevent injury from it. It neither injures nor 
destroys the farmer's crops before nor after they are gathered. 
Nature has exactly calculated it, and the dog, to be extensively 
useful to man. The proper management of the dog, seems to be 
generally so well understood, that it would be useless to say any 
thing of it. 



CHAPTER XL. 

On orchards. It is believed a better form than that in general use may be 
given to fruit trees. 

It would be a tedious task to copy the great mass of valuable infor- 
mation which has been published on the management of orchards ; 
I will therefore confine myself to such remarks on this subject, as 
seem best calculated to induce farmers to put into active practice 
what they already know, together with some observation on what 
is believed by me to be the best form for fruit trees. 

The proper form, however, of a tree, be that what it may, ought 
to be given to it while it is young. Lopping off large branches in- 
flicts wounds, which often introduce decay, and the premature death 
of the tree. By cutting off the suckers and supernumerary branches 
while they are very small, the sun and air are more freely admitted, 
and the tree is not exhausted by the useless and injurious applica- 
tion of the nutriment consumed by them. 

The suckers and supernumerary branches ought to be removed, 
as soon after they appear as can be readily done. Grass and trees 
are immediately opposed to each other. Where the one thrives, 
the other invariably declines. They wage perpetual war, until one 
or the other is entirely rooted out ; this may be clearly seen in our 
uncultivated wilds where nature solely presides; it has also been 
made manifest to the attentive observer by actual practice. 

Where the system of perpetual ploughing and cropping prevails, 
the fruit trees live much longer, and thrive better, notwithstanding 
this mode of management greatly exhausts the soil. 

Where more attention has been given to grass, it has been the 
too general practice to keep orchards long in it. This seems to 
have originated from observing, that the trees and their roots greatly 
increase the labour and expense of cultivation, and that the shade 
considerably reduced the product of the crops. 

Red clover is frequently sown in orchards, and perhaps with a 
view to keep the soil open and mellow, for the more ready admis- 
sion of the roots of the trees ; it, however, commonly happens, that 
the grounds are not ploughed for a considerable time after the clo- 
ver seed is sown, of consequence this plant is rooted out by the 
hardy native speargrasses ; these form a close matted consolidated 
sod, which is in itself very injurious to the tree, as are also many 
of the numerous insects which find shelter, and a part of their sup- 
port in and upon it. 

Hence it is, that in settlements where attention is given to grass, 
orchards generally decline, become unproductive, and premature 
decay commonly ensues 

Tp render orchards productive, and to prevent the premature 



376 

ileath of the trees, they should be kept in constant cultivation. Tf 
the grasses, however, be not frequently grown between the cultivated 
<:rops, this mode of management will require much farm yard ma- 
nure, to keep up the fertility of the soil. 

Maize will be a very proper fallow crop while the trees are 
young, but this plant suffers exceedingly by shade after the trees 
are larger. P^ptatoes suffer less from shade than any plant known 
to me, that is employed for a fallow crop. It is said that buck- 
wheat injures the trees less than any other crop which is sown 
broad cast;* but it would seem, that any of the small grains that 
prospers best under the shade, might follow the fallow crop, without 
doing any material injury to the trees. 

It has been asserted that red clover injures orchards, this has 
however been controverted ; no question but orchards may have 
been greatly injured when red clover was the only grass sown in 
them, and the grounds were not ploughed until the native spear- 
grasses had rooted it, or the greater part of it, out, and formed a 
matted consolidated sod. It is well known, however, that the roots 
of clover do not bind the soil : also, that insects will not be genera- 
ted in great numbers, if the stubble crop of that grass be suffered to 
rot on the ground, and the first crop of the ensuing year be mowed, 
and the second crop turned under for manure. This will be long 
enough for the grasses to be continued, provided they be frequently 
sown and managed as above directed. The grasses will harbour 
ground mice, and they often injure trees sadly. The orchard, how- 
ever, will be but little if any injured by these intruders, if the culti- 
vator keep a sufficient number of cats, and order them properly. 

Orchard grass grows well under the shade of trees, as neither it, 
nor any of the speargrasses known to me, form a matted consolidated 
sod the first year they are mowed, it may be sown, provided it suits 
the farmer's purpose better than clover, or the grounds become tired 
of a frequent repetition of the latter grass. 

Orchards might be rendered very valuable to the plain practical 
farmer, were it not that he generally plants by far more trees than 
can be judiciously managed, without greatly interfering with his 
other concerns. 

One tree managed as it ought to be, will be found much more 
profitable than five ordered as they most usually are. The proper 
management of them, however, costs no small share of tedious and 
laborious attention : by far too many do not seem to be aware of 
this ; they act as if they thought procuring, and planting them, 
formed the principal part of the business, and seem to think that 
while they are engaged in the work, they may as well plant many 
as few. To save labour, and avoid tedious attention, the roots are 
commonly cut off" too short, and sadly mangled in removing them 

* This may be sown broad cast In the orchard to prepare the ground for 
small grain to follow after it, provided the soil be prepared in the w»y that has 
been pointed out in my book on Cultivation. 



377 

from the nursery ; after this they are often bundled up in a hurry, 
and be the journey long or short, put into a waggon or cart, with 
but little if any care taken to defend their tops or roots from being 
rubbed or chafed by the way ; or to prevent their roots from being 
«adly injured by frost, drying winds, or the heat of the sun, as the 
case may happen to be. To save the labour of staking, and other- 
%vise securing the tree from the injurious action of the wind on its 
top, it is planted deep into the poor inert earth, and the hole in 
which it is planted is frequently made so narrow, thit the scanty 
portion of roots remaining attached to the plant is to be forced into 
it; after this it too seldom happens that the orchard is defended by 
a proper fence, of consequence the trees are often sadly injured by 
cattle, sheep, &c. I have sometimes seen the orchard planted 
"where the owner must have known, all the cattle in the neighboui'- 
hood would have free access to it, and once after the trees had been 
bought at a high price, and carried at a great expense more than 
two hundred miles. It would seem, however, that farmers must and 
will have orchards ; also that too few of them duly consider, that it 
requires no small share of labour to plant and defend them properly, 
and that this portion of the business is trivial, when compared with 
the tedious and laborious attention necessary to keep them in good 
condition, and to preserve them from the injuries to which they are 
exposed. Insects prey upon the foliage, roots, trunk and branches 
of trees ; some of . these intruders, if care be not taken, bore deep 
into the wood and destroy the tree ; others perforate and corrode 
the bark so much, that it cannot live, and some insinuate themselves 
between the bark and sapwood of the tree, and feed upon the more 
tender substances found there, until they have destroyed it. 

As these animalcula increase rapidly, unless proper care be 
taken to destroy them, the infected tree becomes weak and dis- 
eased, of consequence incapable of being productive, during the 
time it may happen to live. 

Of this order of nature we have, however, no just cause to com- 
plain. The reason of man has given him sufficient dominion over 
inferior animals to prevent them from doing any very material in- 
jury to him. More he should not have, as from the inconsiderate 
and inveterate complaints against animalcula and weeds, it is evi- 
dent he would destroy the whole, if he possessed the power to do it : 
notwithstanding it is equally e\ ident, that in doing this he would 
eventually destroy himself, as has been before explained, unless 
war, rapine and depopulation of countries should cease,* and a good 
system of husbandry generally prevail. 

iVloist climates, shaded situation, and too close planting, favour 
the growth of the mosses. The suckers and useless branches prove 
very injurious unless they are speedily removed. 

Thus we see the labour and minute attention necessary to pre- 

• In tliose cases nature has to repair the damage. Without the aid of weeds 
and animalcula but little could be done by her. 

r> R 



378 

vent or remove any very serious evil from the various injurious 
causes which have been enumerated, are very considerable. With 
proper attention, however, it may be generally done, by some or 
other of the various means which have been recommended, and 
found by the actual practice of judicious and respectable cultivators 
to succeed. It is only reasonable to believe that what has succeeded 
in the practice of one, would do the same in that of any other, if 
equal care, and judicious attention were employed. 

Observation, however, seems to determine, that too many trees to 
be well managed, together with the inattentive and injudicious ap- 
plication of the remedies which hare been found effectual in the 
practice of those who properly employed them, have caused them 
to fail. 

It is certain that I never could get even the worms properly 
and effectually removed from the roots of my peach trees, unless I 
stood by and saw it done, nor indeed even then, without encounter- 
ing nearly as much trouble and fatigue as if it had been done by ray- 
self, and vastly more vexation and perplexity. The same also uni 
formly happened, in the execution of all the other means employed 
by me, to preserve this invaluable tree ; therefore, knowing well 
what has happened in my own practice, I am not bound to place 
the same confidence in the assertions of those gentlemen, who say, 
they have tried all the remedies that have been proposed to save 
the peach iree, and that the whole have been ineffectual, as I should 
have been, if they had at the same time informed us, that they had 
carefully executed the business themselves, more especially as gen- 
tlemen farmers seldom encounter the labour necessary to execute 
experiments of this description ; they too generally depend on their 
workmen, and it commonly requires far less labour to slight a job 
than to do it effectually. 

It is said by some gentlemen our climate, or an alteration in it, is 
hostile to this tree. I am now in the sixty -fifth year of my age, and 
have seen none of the alterations of which these gentlemen speak. 

The climate of Pennsylvania does not seem so favourable to the 
peach tree as some others ; especially for the more tender varieties. 
It is, however, rarely if ever killed by the vicissitudes of the sea- 
sons, unless it has been previously debilitated by the worm in the 
root, or otherwise injured by insects. 

To prove this, I would simply ask, if the tree is injured so exten- 
sively by the hostility of the climate, how does it happen that it 
commonly continues healthy until age has given time for insects to 
propagate and prey upon it, in sufficient numbers and extent, to 
cause debility? It certainly cannot be naturally stronger and better 
calculated to withstand inclement seasons when it is very young, 
than it is in the mo-e advanced stages of its growth. Yet we com- 
monly see that it thrives while it is quite young, although it gene- 
rally becomes debilitated and dies before it has attained its full 
size. 

Having observed and reflected on the form which nature gives to 



379 

a tree, where the plants have not happehed to stand sufficiently 
close together to be trimmed by shade, I am disposed to believe, 
that in giving fruit trees the form which seems to have been gene- 
rally considered best, art has taken by far too much out of the hands 
of nature : therefore propose the trial of a different plan. 

As this, however, rests merely upon an opinion that has not been 
put into practice by me, or to my knowledge by any other person, 
and I do not wish to mislead, I would advise those, if any there slioald 
be, who may happen to think favourably of the plan, to try it on a 
contracted scale, as there may be reasons, which may have escaped 
my observation, and which, indeed, nothing short of practice can 
unfold, why the plan may be a bad one, notwithstanding I believe 
there are many substantial reasons to suppose it vastly better than 
any method that has yet been proposed, and would certainly put it 
into practice, if trees to which the proper form had been given to 
them in the nursery were to be had. 

Where trees happen to grow so wide apart that nature cannot 
trim them by shade, the limbs branch out regularly from near the 
ground to the top of the tree. The undermost branches are the 
longest, and those above them regularly become shorter in due pro- 
portion as they grow higher up, until a small narrow top is form- 
ed. This gives to the tree a form somewhat like a sugarloaf. 

The advantages supposed to be derived from this form are : first, 
the limbs will be much more numerous, as they grow and spread 
themselves out from near the surface of the soil to the top of the 
tree. They will be also much slimmer and shorter than limbs which 
have been compelled by art to form much higher up. If nature be 
opposed at any one point she becomes deformed by the unnatural 
growth of some other part. Thus compressing the foot in China 
causes the ankles to become unnaturally large. When a small waist 
was fashionable ifi Europe, the size of the hips and shoulders was 
increased. It is believed that the smaller and more numerous limbs, 
will be far better calculated to produce fruit bearing branches and 
to support the weight of the fruit grown on them, and that it will be 
more regularly spread on them' than on the much larger limbs. The 
useless wood and length of the latter act as a powerful lever, and 
often cause them to break or split off, when loaded with fruit. 

Secondly, tlie gradual taper in the form of the tree from the bot- 
tom to the top of it, seems far better calculated to let in the sun 
and air to mature the fruit, than the usual form. 

Thirdly, the gradual declension in the size of the body as well as 
of the length and size of the branches or limbs of the tree, from 
near the ground to the top it, together with the wider spreading 
parts of it being near the earth, greatly lessen the power of the 
action of the winds on it; consequently it will be far less subject 
to be blown down, than a tree forming very heavy and wide spread- 
ing branches, at the usual distance from the ground. 

Fourthly, it would seem that the soil in orchards managed in this 
way will require no cultivation ; that the fall of foliage growing on 



380 

branches which commence their spread so near to the ground, to- 
gether with the covering formed by the leaves falling from them, 
will prevent the growth of the grasses; also, that the fermentation 
and decomposition of the fallen vegetation annually gathered in 
this way, will furnish a sufficiency of manure, and keep the grounds 
open and mellow for the growth of the roots of the trees,* particu- 
larly as the same interesting processes of nature, seem to have 
taken place in the practice of Mr. Thomas Coulter, of Bedford 
county, Pennsylvania. 

To illustrate my subject, however, and also to prove that the life, 
health and vigour of the peach tree may be long preserved, I will 
quote the essential parts of this gentleman's observations on the 
management of his peach orchard. He says : 

" The principal causes of the peach trees dying whilst young, are 
the planting, transplanting and pruning the same stock; which 
causes the stock to be open and tender, and the bark of the tree ve- 
ry rough : this roughness' of the bark gives opportunities to insects 
to lodge and breed in it, and birds search after these insects for their 
support, and with their sharp bills, wound the stock in many places, 
from which wound the sap of the tree is drawn out, which congeals, 
and never fails to kill, or render the tree useless in a few years. To 
prevent which, transplant your peach trees, as young as possible, 
where you mean them to stand ; if in the kernel, so much the bet- 
ter ; because, in that case, there will be no check of growth which 
always injures peach trees. Plant peach trees sixteen feet apart, 
both ways, except you would wish to take your waggon through the 
orchard to carry the peaches away ; in that case give twenty -four 
feet distance in every fifth row, one way. After transplanting, you 
may plough and harrow amongst your peach trees, paying no regard 
to wounding and tearing them, so that you do not take them up by 
the roots. In the month of March or April, in the third year after 
transplanting, cut them all off by the ground ; plough and harrow 
among them as before, taking care not to wound and tear them in 
the smallest degree, letting all sprouts or scions grow that will 
grow ; cut none away, supposing six or more sliould come from the 
old stump ; the young scions will grow to bearing trees on account 
of the roots being strong. Let no kind of beasts into the peach or- 
chard, hogs excepted, for fear of wounding the trees, as the least 
wound will greatly injure the tree, by draining away that substance 
which is the life thereof; although the tree may live many years, 
the produce of it is not so great, neither is the fruit so good. Af- 
ter the old stock is cut away, the third year after transplanting, 
tlie sprouts or scions will grow up all round the old stump, from 
four to six in number: no more will come to maturity, than the old 
stump can support and nourish, the remainder will die before they 

• As this manure will be regular and less powerful than dung', it is thought 
the fruit will be less liable to fall prematurely, tlian sometimes happens when 
farm yard manure has been liberally employed, for the cultivated crops grown 
in the orchard. 



381 

bear fruit. These maybe cut away, taking care not to wound any 
part of any stock or the bark. The sprouts grow all round the old 
stump; when loaded with fruit, will bend and rest on the ground in 
every direction without injuring of them for i any years, all of them 
being rooted in the ground, as though they had been planted. The 
stocks will remain tough and the bark smooth for twenty years and 
upwards; if any of the sprouts or trees from the old stumps should 
happen to split off or die, cut them away, they will be supplied 
from the ground, by young trees, so that you will have trees from 
the same stump for one hundred years, as I believe 1 now have trees 
thirty-six, twenty, ten, five and down to one year old, all from the 
same stump. The young trees coming up after any of the old trees 
split off or die and are cut away, will bear fruit the second year ; but 
this fruit will not ripen so early as the fruit from the old trees from 
the same stem. Three years after the trees are cut oft" by the ground 
they will be sufficiently large and bushy, to shade the ground so as 
to prevent grass of any kind from matting or bedding the surface, 
so as to injure the trees : therefore ploughing is useless, as well as 
injurious ; useless, because nothing can be raised in the orchard by 
reason the trees will shade all the ground or nearly so ; injurious, 
because either the roots, stock or branches will be wounded, neither 
is it necessary ever to manure peach trees, as manured trees will al- 
ways produce less and worse fruit, than trees that are not manur- 
ed ; although by manuring your peach trees they will grow larger, 
and look greener and thicker in the boughs and cause a thicker 
shade, yet on them will grow but very little fruit, and that little 
will be of a very bad kind, generally looking as green as the leaves, 
even when ripe, and later than those which n,ever have been ma- 
nured. 

•' Peach trees never require a rich soil ; the poorer the soil the 
better the fruit ; a middling soil produces a more bountiful crop. 

" The highest grounds and north sides of hills are best for the 
peach trees: they keep back vegetation, by which means the fruit 
is often preserved from being killed by late frosts in the month of 
April in Pennsylvania latitude, I have made these observations 
from actual experience. 

" A gentleman from Monongahela county in Virginia, called at 
my house and asked me who instructed me to cultivate peach 
trees : I told him that observation and experience were my teach- 
ers. The gentleman observed, that Colonel Luther Martin, in the 
lower parts of Maryland, and another gentleman near the same 
place, whose name he could not recollect, were pursuing the same 
plan advantageously."* 

Here again we see that plain practical farmers are not (what 
too many gentlemen seem to suppose them to be,) " the most igno- 
rant people in the world." 

These gentlemen, however, should have reflected that nature is 

• See Domes. Encyc. vol, Iv. pages 244 to 246. 



382 

not partial in the distribation of talents; that the occupation of 
these men naturally leads to philosophical inquiry; that those 
among them who possess strong and inquiring minds are naturally 
led to investigate cause and eff'ect as much, if not more, than any 
other " set of men in the world," at least so far as the economy of 
. vegetation is obviously connected with practical husbandry; also, 
I that even those of them who do not know a letter in the alphabet, 
but at the same time possess talents and attention equal to the 
task, are by the mere dint of practical observation, capable of 
making very useful and important discoveries in the economy of 
nature and practice of husbandry: such as would do honour to any 
gentleman, be his education and talents what they may. 

Mr. Coulter's discovery of the means by which the peach tree 
may be long preserved, and his judicious remarks on that subject, 
are highly interesting. I do not know this gentleman, but be- 
lieve he has candidly stated facts as they seemed to occur in his 
practice, for I have observed that A^hen the stem of the peach tree 
had been sadly injured by the horns or mouths of cattle while the 
plant was young, that in place of forming a new body composed of 
a large solid stem, the body is divided into a number of small 
stems or branches growing out in different directions from around 
the' old stump or stem; that the bark on these small branches is 
vastly smoother and more compact than that on the trunk and 
larger parts of the limbs of a tree to which the usual form has 
been given. 

The cause of this is evident: as the size of the body or limbs of 
a tree increases, the bark uniformly becomes more rough and open: 
the exterior parts of it separate at and near the surface, and also 
in part, from the the interior bark underneath it. In doing this, 
they are divided into numerous pieces of various shapes and forms. 
These loosened and dead looking pieces of bark,* when acted upon 
by sufficient moisture and heat, furnish decomposed vegetable mat- 
ters, that greatly favour the growth of the mosses, especially in 
moist climates and shaded situations; and it may be, that when 
the bark is not injured by the mosses, &.c. this decomposed vegeta- 
ble matter is also slowly applied to the nourishment of the tree by 
the mouths'of the vessels formed in the living bark. 

Be this, however, as it may, it is evident that the openings be- 
tween, and the hollows under, the rough, dead looking pieces of 
bark, furnish very convenient and commodious habitations for in- 
numerable animalcula, which prey upon the wood, bark and foliage 
of the tree. It seems probable, however, that " planting, trans- 
planting and pruning the stock of the peach tree," may, by pro- 
moting the debility of it, "cause the stock to become" more "open 
and tender, and the bark of the tree rougher," than it wouid be if 
it was not removed from the place in which the seed was first 

♦ They are, however, alive \vhere they closely adhere to the solid bark un- 
dcrneath them. 



383 

planted: still, nothing can be more evident, than that whether the 
tree be or be not removed or pruned, the bark on the bodj and 
larger parts of the limbs will be rough, open and loose when the 
usual form has been given to it. 

The readiest and most e^ctual way known to me, to remove 
the roughness in the bark, is to whitewash with lime the trunk 
and every part of the branches of the tree on which either moss or 
rough, loose bark appears. This causes the moss and rough bark 
to peal or fall off, and gives to the remaining bark a smooth, firm, 
and very healthy looking skin. The very extensive harbour for 
insects is also removed, and multitudes of them and their eggs, 
&c. destroyed. Care, however, should be taken to extend the 
whitewashing to the small, as well as to the large, branches of 
the tree. 

Lime, so far as my observation extends, invariably promotes 
vegetation whei-ever it has a suflSciency of animal and vegetable 
matters to act upon, unless the quantity of lime be either too 
great or too inconsiderable. From this, together with the unusu- 
ally healthy and vigorous look of trees which had been white- 
washed, it would seem, that the lime not only acts by stripping off 
the mosses, and loose, rough bark, but also by converting a part of 
it, and of the animalcula sheltered by it, into such nutritious mat- 
ter as the absorbent vessels in the bark are capable of imbibing 
and applying to the nourishment of the tree. If this, however, 
does not happen, these substances certainly furnish nutriment after 
they fall to the ground. 

That those vessels are capable of performing to a certain extent 
the same. functions as the leaves, seems to be manifest. I have 
seen inconsiderate practitioners cut off every limb from an apple- 
tree after the body of it had attained three or more inches in dia- 
meter; leaving only stubs of a few inches long, in which they fixed 
grafts. The grafts did not succeed, owing, as I believe, to the sys- 
tem of the tree being generally debilitated in consequence of its 
having no branches on which leaves could be formed in proper 
time. The tree, however, put out new branches the ensuing sum- 
mer, and formed a new top This, I suppose, would not have hap- 
pened, and that the tree would have died, if the bark had not to 
a certain extent performed the same functions as do the leaves. 

Whether it would be either safe or proper to apply the white- 
washing with lime annually, is unknown to me. I have only seen 
it used occasionally. Scrubbing the trees annually with soapsuds 
will destroy moss and insects, and keep the bark smooth and 
healthy. It has been said by some gentlemen that if this be done 
with water alone similar effects are produced.* 

Be this, however, as it may, the cultivator should use such means 
as will effect these important purposes. The application of the 

• If this be done when the vegetable matter is well saturated by rain th'i 
labour is greatly lessened, if eitUer soapsuds or pure water be used, 



384 

whitewash is by far the least laborious practice knowu to me. 
So far as I have seen it tried the beneficial effects produced by it 
seemed to be astonishingly great: still, a frequent and long conti- 
nued use of it, or any other substance equally corrosive, may prove 
injurious. The corrosive property o^ the lime may, however, be 
greatly lessened by slaking, and letting it lie long exposed to the 
air after it has been slaked. It would seem, that if the trees be 
annually whitewashed, it will be, at least, best (after the first ap- 
plication of it) to reduce the caustic property of the lime more or 
less, as practice and observation may determine.* 

Mr. Coulter observes, that " manured tress will always produce 
less, and worse fruit, than those trees that are not manured." 
This may be the case if the grounds be too highly manured. It is. 
certainly so when the soil is too rich for wheat and other plants 
better known to us than the peach tree. 

It is, however, evident that his peach orchard was annually ma- 
nured, as are our forests, by the fallen vegetation and animalcula 
which subsisted on it, and on the living parts of the tree. The num- 
ber on the latter was very much diminished in consequence of the 
smooth form and healthy texture of the bark. Yet smooth as this 
bark may have appeared to the eye, it alforded abundant and com- 
modious shelter for myriads of animalcula, so small as to elude our 
sight. Nay, more, it is probable that innumerable tribes of them, 
have been formed so small as not to be discovered by the most 
highly improved microscopes that have yet been, or ever will be in- 
vented. Every leaf in his orchard teemed with living animal be- 
ings, descending in due gradation from those large enough to be 
seen by us, down to others so extremely small, that even our ima- 
gination cannot trace their minute, but perfect form. 

The freer and more powerful action of the wind on the fallen 
vegetation, will naturally blow off more of it from the orchard, 
than is blown off from the interior parts of an extensive forest. If 
the limbs of the trees, however, are caused to grow very near to the 
ground, the fallen vegetation is very considerably defended by 
them. Therefore, nothing like as much of it is blown off from the 
soil as from an orchard ordered in the usual way. If the orchard 
be defended by a good fence, far less of this light vegetation will be 
blown off. 

Although paying no regard to wounding and tearing the trees, 
if they be not taken up by the roots, when ploughing and harrowing 

• I have never used fresh slaked lime for this purpose, therefore do not know 
but it might be injurious even in the beginning. I do not, however, believe it 
would : on the contrarj', it might be much more extensively useful. Last year 
I whitewashed with lime (that came to hand soaking wet, but had after this 
lain about two years well sheltered from the weather) some apple trees over- 
run with moss. The moss has been extensively destroyed, and much of the 
loose bark has peeled off. A great deal of both, however, still remains on the 
trees. It would therefore seem, that the whitewash was not sufficiently cor. 
rosive. 



385 

among them previously to cutting them off by the ground, may not 
very materially injure the ultimate prosperity of the orchard, it is 
evident that the plants thus mangled and torn, will be more or 
less debilitated ; therefore, less vigorous and fruitful, at least for 
some considerable time, than those which have not been thus used. 
The principal objections to forming orchards of any kind, by cut- 
ting off the trees by the ground, while they are young, seem to be: 
First, by planting the seed, the same variety is seldom obtained. 
It may be better, but it is far more likely to be wors^if the seed be 
from good fruit. Secondly, if improved varieties are Ingrafted into 
stocks grown for this purpose, as low down as it can be done, quite 
as many, or perhaps more of the stems grown after the trees are 
cut off by the ground, may proceed from the unimproved roots. 
Thirdly, although the practice, so far as the peach tree be con- 
cerned, seems to be highly important, as it appears to be well cal- 
culated to preserve the health and vigour of it for many years, 
it does not seetn reasonable to believe that altering the natural eco- 
nomy of trees so extensively, can be in common cases ad viseable ; es- 
pecially as we generally find that any material alteration in the na- 
tural economy of plants very commonly does manifest injury to them. 
The form suggested by me is that which nature gives to trees, 
when they do not stand close enough together to be trimmed by 
shade. It is, therefore, presumed, that the organization of the plant 
will be far better calculated to perform the functions she has as- 
signed to it, than can happen when the usual form is given to it by 
art, or when the natural form is still !nuch more altered by cutting 
off the tree close by the ground, when it is young. 

The growth of useless and very injurious suckers, &c. seems to 
clearly to determine, it was intended that man should assist nature 
by removing exuberant redundances from fruit trees. It also ap- 
pears that be may powerfully assist her by speedily removing the 
branches which are opposed to the proper form of timber trees. She 
can only do it by the tedious process of shade. This causes the 
tree to grow very slowly until after it has been trimmed, as has 
been before explained. 

Practice and observation, however, as clearly determine, that 
except it be to admit a lesser evil to prevent a greater, plants should 
not be mutilated, or their roots and tops compelled to take unnatu- 
ral forms or postures. It is, no question, both useful and ingenious 
to grow, or to rear them for a limited time, under frames, and to 
fasten them to, and spread them out against walls, in climates op- 
posed either less or more to the economy of them : still, reason, ob- 
servation, and practice dictate that the same unnatural measures 
should not be pursued in the management of these plants, when 
they are cultivated in climates favourable to the growth of them. 
It is believed that the vegetation falling front the trees growing 
in their native form, will be so well secured by the limbs formed 
near to the ground, that neither cultivation nor thp application of 
manure will be necessarv. 



386 

More labour, however, will be required in the beginning. The 
limbs will not grow any thing like so rapidly as from stumps which 
had formed extensive roots before the tree was cut ott" by the 
ground. Therefore, weeds and grass must be destroyed. To etfect 
this, the hoe ought to be used underneath the branches, until the 
shaile of the limbs and foliage, together with the fallen vegetation, 
become sufficiently extensive to perform this important purpose. 
The D hoe will eradicate these with by far the greatest expedition, 
and least inju% to the branches of the trees. Where the limbs do 
not yet extend, the hoe harrow, with the tined harrow following it, 
will extirpate the grasses and weeds effectually, and with but little 
labour, until the shade and fallen vegetation render cultivation 
useless. 

The increased number of limbs will cause them to be small : the 
bark therefore will be much smoother and more compact, than that 
grown on the limbs of a tree to which the usual form has been given. 
The tapering given to the body of a tree growing in the form which has 
been suggested, will also cause the bark, except that near the root, 
to be smoother, and more compact than that growing on the body of 
a tree formed in the usual way ; it will, however, be much more 
rough and open, than that on the numerous branches which form the 
divided body of a tree, grown from a stump, after the original stem 
has been cut off by the ground, while the plant was young. This is 
the only material advantage which the latter practice has over the 
one proposed ; it is however important, so far as peach trees may be 
concerned ; still it does not appear sufficient to discourage the at- 
tentive and industrious cultivator, as there are several ways by 
which the bark may be kept smooth, firm, and healthy. It should 
also be recollected, that by applying the remedies necessary to pre- 
serve the health and vigour of the bark, innumerable insects are de- 
stroyed ; also that it is only reasonable to suppose that even the 
smallest of these, may in geineral live by committing injurious de- 
predations on the tree. 

It is probable that farmers in general will consider, that no form 
which could be suggested can be proper, if the ground be devoted 
to trees alone. They should, however, recollect, that if the orchard 
be kept in grass, the trees become sickly, and premature death 
ensues. If it be subjected to the plough, the labour is greatly aug- 
mented by the obstacles presented by the roots and bodies of the 
trees ; also that tlie cultivated crops are greatly injured by shade, 
of consequence are rarely productive. That without great care the 
trees are sadly injured by ploughing and harrowing among them. 
That if orchards may be managed without cultivating the grounds, 
a great deal of labour which seems to answer but very little if any 
good purpose, except that of preserving the health and vigour of the 
trees, will be saved. It showld also be remarked, that as the form 
suggested for the trees, is far better calculated to let in the sun and 
air, and the length of the branches will likewise be considerably 
shorter than when grown in the usual way, or than when grown by 



887 

cutting off the stem of the tree v/hile the plant is young, much less 
ground will suffice, if the trees be planted no wider apart than is 
necessary to admit sufficient sun and air ; further apart than this 
they should not stand : therefore the different sizes commonly at- 
tained even by different varieties of trees bearing the same species 
of fruit should be well considered previously to planting, and the 
distances between each variety regulated in due proportion to 
size. 

Room should be left between the rows at suitable distances for a 
waggon or cart to pass through, if the size of the orchard seems to 
require it. As, however, one tree kept in good condition will be 
more productive than several managed as trees generally are, in 
common the fruit may be removed by driving the waggon or cart 
round the outside of the orchard; when this can be conveniently 
done it will be best, as the thicker the fallen vegetation is spread 
over the soil, and the more shade there can be introduced, consistent 
with admitting a sufficiency of sun and air to perfect the fruit, the 
greater will be the profit derived from the system of management 
that has been suggested. 

It should be observed, that if grass and weeds be suffered to grow 
up among the young trees, the limbs are effectually trimmed by the 
close shade of this vegetation, so far up, that the subsequent growth 
of the part of the stem which has been thus trimmed, forms a body 
without limbs growing on it, nearly as long as the bodies usually 
formed by art. 

This is clearly seen in grounds here which were dammed up and 
inhabited bj(,beavers, before the dams were cut more than twenty 
years ago by the settlers. It appears that scattering trees, low 
growing shrubs, and high growing grasses and weeds, were the ve- 
getation which followed this partial draining of the land. That 
where the shrubs, grasses and weeds extensively prevailed, the trees 
growing among this vegetation have been trimmed, in the way which 
has been described. 

The proper form of a tree to be grown in the way which has been 
suggested, must be first given to it in the nursery; consequently 
the plants should stand much wider apart in the rows than common, 
and grasses and weeds continually kept under.* On no considera- 
tion should the main stem of the top of the tree be cut shorter or 
otherwise mutilated. If this be done, the tapering in the form of it, 
will not be sufficient to admit the sun and air freely, unless the trees 
be planted too wide apart to lavour the design. 

That the birk will continue smooth and firm on the divided body, 
formed by the numerous and small limbs which grow from the 
stump, after a young peach tree has been cut off by the ground, 

■ • This is more highly impoi-tant than at fi'St sight it may appear to be : so 
much so that if the weeds and grasses are not timely, and effectually destroyed 
m tlie nursery, and also in the orchard, while the plants are young, naked bodies 
in place of limbs branching out near to the ground, will be formed by every 
tree. • 



388 

cannot be doubted by those who have observed the eQ'ects produced 
when cattle or any other cause destroy all but the stump. 

As this accident, however, does not happen to a number of trees 
standing close together, the leaves which fall under the single and 
exposed tree, are blown away by the wind ; therefore do not shelter 
the tender bark near to, or in contact witii the ground, consequently 
the fly deposites its eggs. The absence of the leaves thus blown 
away, together with the sun being more freely admitted, by placing 
the limb in that way which best suits the occasional or constant cul- 
tivation of the ground, causes the grasses to grow under the tree; 
these are seldom, if ever, removed further in than the cultivated 
crops seem to require, and the tree is greatly injured by them. 

Mr. Joseph Cooper, says, "From many observations and experi- 
ments, 1 have found that the worm most destructive to peach trees, 
begins to change to a chrysalis about the first of July, and remains 
in this state two weeks, when they come out a wasp, and proceed to 
couple and lay eggs near the roots of the trees, or in wounds in 
other parts, but do.little injury, except near the roots, as, if attended 
to, the issuing of the gum will show their seat, and they are easily 
picked out ; but their principal object is the root, the bark being 
softer there than on the body, and the rapid growth of the trunk 
near to the root, at the time of the wasps depositing their eggs, 
causes a number of small rents in the bark, which give the worms 
an easy entrance."* 

J)r. James Tilton, says, "The wasplike insect which bores the 
bark of the tree, delights especially in that region just below the 
surface of the earth.''t From the observations of those gentlemen, 
as well as those made by many others whose opinions might be 
quoted, it would appear, that if a suitable defence against the at- 
tack of the wasplike insect, be provided near the surface of the 
soil, no injury except such as may be readily removed is to be 
dreaded. Also, that if the bark be sound, compact, and healthy, no 
injury can be done by it higher up on the tree. The fallen leaves 
annually gathered round the body of the tree grown in the way 
suggested by me, seem well calculated to form the necessary de- 
fence of the tender bark near the root, especially as it is very ob- 
vious, that the leaves which fall in any one year, sink but little into 
decay, until a covering is formed over them by the fall of the same 
kind of vegetation in tlie autumn of the ensuing year.l As it may, 
however, happen, that by high winds, or other causes, this covering 
will be in some instances too scanty, the cultivator should in such 
cases increase it by putting more leaves round the body of the tree. 

If it should appear after injury is no longer to be expected from 
the wasp, that the quantity of the leaves thus applied by the cultiva- 

♦ See Mem. Phil Agr. Soc. vol. i. pages 12, 13. f Idem, page 189. 

^ As the leaves forming the upper stratum have ivt sunk into decay, they 
diy 'iMich sooner after rain, than the upper part of a hill formed of earth : con- 
seqiH itly the moisture confined by them does not soften the bark near the 
surface, as does that confined in the hill. * 



389 

tor, were sufficient to soften the bark above that point were in 
common it is natuially soft, the covering should be immediately re- 
duced. 

Notwithstanding some gentlemen form hills of earth round the 
bodies of their peach trees in the fall, and seem to think that bind- 
ing straw round them, would form a useful defence against the 
changes in temperature, which take place duririg winter, it would 
appear that sheltering them in that way, is exactly calculated to 
weaken and debilitate their system. Nothing, however, can be more 
evident, than that the moisture confined by the earth or straw, great- 
ly softens the texture of the bark. In consequence it is far more 
readily punctured by the wasp.* 

That peach trees growing in thickets, hedge rows or fence cor- 
ners where shrubs, brambles, &c. prevail, thrive better and live much 
longer than those which stand in the open grounds has been re- 
marked by many. This has been, however, attributed by some gen- 
tlemen to " their being preserved from the etfects of sudden transi- 
tions from heat to cold, and from cold to heat." The arguments, 
however, by which they attempt to support this theory, seem to be 
opposed to reason and observation. One of them is evidently erro- 
neous, to wit: " That in thinly settled parts peach trees flourish." 
The general practice of perpetual ploughing and cropping in recent 
settlements, saves the peach and other fruit trees, from the injury 
arising from the growing them in grounds which are commonly kept 
in grass: therefore, as the peach tree has not, in general, this addi- 
tional evil to contend with, it is better calculated to withstand the 
depredations committed by the worm on its roots. 

The ravages committed by the worm in the root, is, however, 
equally as destructive in thinly formed settlements, as where popula- 
tion is extensive. So are the depredations committed by the Hessian 
fly, after, by means not well understood, it has introduced itself 
in sufficient numbers to do extensive mischief. On my removal to 
Philipsburg, in 1812, 1 found fields of wheat as much injured by this 
insect, as commonly happens in old settlements where it has long 
prevailed ; notwithstanding an extensive forest of from ten to twelve 
miles in width, thickly set with the tallest and largest trees I had 
ever seen before, as well as smaller ones and shrubs growing un- 
derneath their shade, divides this very thinly settled neighbour- 
hood, from where more extensive clearings have been made. 

I also observed that the worm in the root of the peach tree was 
as destructive here, as in old and very thickly formed settle- 
ments : that the fruit on the plum trees, removed, when young, 
from the forest, and planted in the gardens, was quite as much in- 

* Therefore, when straw is bound round the body of the tree to defend it 
from the wasp, itsliould be put on early in tlie spring and removed when dan- 
ger from this insect has passed by. It would apiiear that this practice alone, 
if proper care was taken in execution, would long preserve tlie life and liealtli 
of the peach tree, notwithstanding gentlemen, who but too frequently farm by 
proxy, say it will do no good. 



690 

jured by the beetle, as I had ever seen happen in older settlements. 
Thus the life of the peach tree, seems to be quite as precarious in 
this very thinly settled neighbourhood, as^ in any other place where 
I have been. 

It would appear, however, that local causes, not so well under- 
stood as they might have been, if farmers had not been led astray 
by visionary theories, in some situations, preserve this tree from 
the depredations committed by the fly. Hence it is, that the peach 
tree often attains a very large size, and continues perfectly healthy 
for many years, where the air is highly impregnated with salt, as is 
the case near the sea, or where the bays, rivers, creeks or inlets 
from it are very salt. Some insects live, and thrive abundantly, 
when enveloped by salt, as in salted meat, fish, &c. There are 
others on which salt, even in small quantities, seems to act as a 
deadly poison. The wasp which injures the peach tree, may be, 
and I believe is, one of these. Still, theories, quite as much opposed 
to philosophy as they are to common sense and observation, have 
been formed to prove that the changes in temperature, which they 
say destroy the peach tree in the vicinity of Philadelphia, do not 
operate nearer to the sea. These theorists, however, might have 
seen that (he humidity and warmth of the southerly winds, coming 
from a great distance over the sea, would more rapidly thaw the 
grounds near to it, than after they had traversed over a considerable 
extent of hard frozen ground ; that the north-westerly winds which 
commonly follow soon, or immediately after, the warm spells in 
winter, are as cold or perhaps colder near the sea, than they are 
in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and that the ground there 
which had been previously thawed by the warmth and humidity of 
the southerly winds, which had passed over the sea, would be sud- 
denly bound up by hard frost, from the powerful action of the cold 
northerly winds. 

But in fact, it would seem, that the peach tree is not so readily 
affected by changes in the temperature, as some gentlemen seem 
to imagine. On the contrary, that it is quite as capable of with- 
standing these changes as many of our native forest trees. The 
latter are very often much injured and sometimes killed by severe 
frost, and so is it. There has been no efiectual care taken to in- 
troduce the best or earliest varieties of peaches here. The trees 
seem to have been raised by planting the stone, and but little, if 
any, attention given, whether the seed was from late or early, or 
from good or bad fruit. 

This may have caused the fruit to ripen much later than it w^ould 
otherwise do. The climate, however, seems to be considerably 
opposed to the early ripening of it, for the fruit in common is more 
or less injured by frost before it is ripe. In the year 1817, not 
a single peach ripened in this settlement. As nature does not 
loosen the grasp of the leaves so that they may fall while the fruit 
is yet quite green, the leaves on the peach trees thus circumstanced, 
hung on it, and retained their native green as long as did the leaves 



391 

on the hardiest deciduous trees growing in our forests : of conse- 
quence, some considerable time after the leaves growing on the 
more tender varieties of forest trees, had been stripped of their na- 
tive green by frost, and were falling oft'. 

Now it would seem, that if the general system of the peach tree 
were so tender as some gentlemen have represented it to be, it 
would be so much affected by the changes in temperature, that it 
would not support the colour and vigour of the leaves so long. 

It would be useless for me to describe the many ways by which 
respectable cultivators have informed us, the life, health and vigour 
of the peach tree have been long preserved. There seems to be no 
more reason to doubt the facts as related by them, than there is to 
doubt any other facts resting on respectable testimony ; especially, 
as in general the means proposed appear to be calculated to effect 
the end. The reason why they have not generally succeeded^ seems 
to be, that all of them require more attention and perseverance 
than the farmers in general are disposed to bestow on an object 
that is not particularly connected with their more important con- 
cerns. 

Be this, however, as it may, if my theory be correct, (which the 
cultivator will, I trust, recollect, remains yet to be tried,) this tree 
may be preserved from the injury done by the fly, without labour 
or expense, by the leaves which fall from it,* provided the orchard 
be so ordered that the leaves falling round the stem, be confined 
either by the means which have been proposed, or in any other way 
by which it can be done without employing labour to effect that 
purpose. As the fallen leaves furnished by the branches of the 
peach tree while it is very young, may not be found sufficient to 
defend it from the injury done by the fly, I would advise the cul- 
tivator to use some of the most convenient means that have been 
proposed to exclude the wasp or kill the worm, until the fallen ve- 
getation is sufficient to defend the tree. Some respectable cultiva- 
tors have long preserved the life and health of their peach tree by 
the use of lime alone. This is applied with less risk after it has 
been exposed to the air long enough to weaken its corrosive pro- 
perty considerably. In that state, a shovelful or about half a 
peck should be spread on the ground around the tree, and well in- 
corporated with the soil as deep as it may be done without injuring 
the roots of the plants. Some labour may be saved, by spreading 
it just before the plants are cultivated by the D hoe or scuffle. 

It would seem, however, that a better remedy would be to 
anoint the body of the tree where the fly deposites its eggs with 
quicksilver ointment. This is best put on with a smail brush, 
taking care to rub the ointment well into the rents made in the 

• Here, being conscious that I am " moving on untrodden ground," and 
that the result of many a theory equally or perhaps more promising, has been 
proved to be erroneous, the ground n which I move, st-ems to shake, al- 
though I can see no r<iason why it should do so, except that practices resting 
on theory alone, are but too commonly haSiardous experiments. 



392 

bark by the growing of the tree. The expense will be very trivial, 
if the cultivator buy the materials and make the ointment himself. 
There is reason to believe that a covering of leaves will prevent 
the beetle from puncturing such fruit as is commonly injured by it. 
There arc different varieties of the wild plumb growing here. 
They,. however, grow much more plentifully about fifteen or twenty 
miles distant from this place. The hunters, and others, who tra- 
verse our forests, say the fruit is only slightly injured by the bee- 
tle. It is, however, very observable, that the fruit growing on the 
same tree, removed when young from our forests into our gardens, 
is as extensively injured by the beetle as I have ever seen it in our 
older settlements. 

Now, as Plum Island and other parts not far from this place, 
seem to have obtained their names from the number of plum trees 
which the first explorers of the country found growing on them, it 
would appear, that much more time has been allowed for the pro- 
pagation of the beetle than would have been necessary to introduce 
them in immense numbers, if nature had not taken measures that 
were well calculated to prevent an immoderate spread of those in- 
sects, that the fruit might be ])reserved for the use of the different 
animals that feed on it. This important end seems to have been 
accomplished merely by keeping the grounds well covered by the 
fall of the foliage, &c. from the plants. 

Notwithstanding the beetle has been formed to live in the ground 
while in its grub or worm state, practice and observation have 
long since determined, that it is not furnished with sufficient 
powers to penetrate the soil where any very serious obstacle op- 
poses its progress. Thus, we see, that when the cattle, or the 
farmer's family, or both united, happen to consolidate the ground 
where the plum or any other tree is growing whose fruit is com- 
monly punctured by the beetle, the fruit is sure to escape any ma- 
terial injury from that insect. The cause of this is well known, 
and has been attributed in every instance, so far as my observation 
extends, to the incapacity of the beetle, while in its worm state, to 
penetrate the hard trodden ground. There is, therefore, nothing 
unreasonable in supposing it probable, that it cannot penetrate 
through a mass of dried and compact vegetation. As in this 
case it can only get into the ground where the wind or any other 
cause removes the fallen foliage of the tree, it does not exist in 
sufficient numbers to do any material injury to the fruits where 
nature solely cultivates the plants. If so, any vegetable substance 
equally as impervious as the leaves, will prevent any very serious 
injury from the beetle. 

The experiment, however, on a small scale, is easy, and seems 
to be worth trying. If it should succeed, all fruit liable to serious 
injury from the beetle may be readily saved by planting the trees 
sufficiently close to cover the ground by the fall of their foliage, 
and also to preserve this foliage from being blown off" by causing 
the limbs of the trees to grow very near to the ground in the way 
that has been before pointed out. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

On the sugar tree, 

1 HE sugar tree, as it has been spread by nature through our fo- 
rests, is very useful to the back-woods farmer: especially when 
there happens to be enough of them so near to his dwelling that he 
can gather the sap or sugar water, and haul it in casks to be boiled 
there. This, however, seldom occurs : the farmer, therefore, fixes 
his sugar camp, as it is called, where he finds the most trees near 
enough together to collect the sugar water with tolerable con- 
venience. 

In the middle of the grounds where the most trees stand, he 
builds a hut, covered with bark or spruce pine boughs, to shelter 
him from the weather. Jqst without the hut the kettles are fixed 
for boiling the sugar water. This is done by hanging them on a 
pole supported by crutches. The establishment being thus com- 
pleted is called a sugar camp. 

As the sap commonly commences running while the snow is 
still deep on the ground, and the way to and from the trees is ge- 
nerally obstructed by fallen timber and underwood, and the sugar 
trees stand wide apart in consequence of the growth of a variety 
of other trees among them; this, with boiling day and night while 
the sap runs freely, together with living in the hut, render sugar 
making a tiresome and disagreeable business to the cultivator. 

As the running of the sap depends much on the weather, and 
the greater or less exposure of the trees to the influence of the 
sun and air, the progress is frequently very tardy, and the product 
as uncertain as the gathering of it is slow. When what are called 
good or bad seasons for making sugar are averaged, it is commonly 
considered an unprofitable business, unless the camp stands so 
near to the farmer's dwelling that he can gather the water without 
interfering with his other business, and boil it either in his house 
or yard : therefore sugar trees are not so highly prized as they 
would be if those difficulties to a profitable use of them did not 
intervene. They are of consequence often destroyed when the 
grounds are cleared from their wood. This induces me to believe 
that in process of time they will be generally obliterated, unless 
proper measures be taken to make the product much more valua- 
ble by being readily obtained. It would seem tliat this can never 
be effected unless enterprising and patriotic farmers will set the 
example of forming them into orchards near to their dwellings. 
This may be as readily done with the sugar as any other tree, and, 
if it be c«n8i(lercd that ingrafting will be useless, it is evident that 



394 

the labour will be much less. If the plan I have already proposed 
be adopted, the orchard will require but little cultivation or prun- 
ing, and no manure after it has been formed. The wood is at least 
quite as solid as hickory, burns equally free, and as long: there- 
fore will be quite as valuable for fuel after age has rendered the 
tree unproductive for sugar. The soil, after the timber has been 
removed, will not only be fresh but also very rich for the growth 
«f cultivated crops. It should also be remarked, that as the sugar 
tree is much more curly and vastly harder than the common ma- 
ple, it is greatly preferable to the latter for making household fur- 
niture; that no wood exceeds it for making stocks for guns. 

Thus it would appear that after tlic tree is no longer valuable for 
making sugar, the timber will command a high price, where that ar- 
ticle is in demand. I have, however, been informed that some trees 
which have been regularly tapped for more than fifty years, are still 
at least equally as productive as they were at first. It would, 
therefore, appear we have reason to believe, that an orchard formed 
of them would be very lasting. 

It is rendered difficult to obtain the averagie product of the su- 
"•ar tree, as in collecting the water for boiling, the produce of the 
whole is mixed, and many of the trees from being closely shaded by 
other trees, or by being not only shaded, but also standing on the 
north side of hills, yield but little sap. This difficulty is also great- 
ly increased from its being customary to tap all the common maple 
tVees within the bounds of the camp. The water or sap from this 
tree yields quite as good sugar as that from the sugar tree, but not 
near so much of it. 

There is, however, a man residing not far from this place, who 
has regularly for six years past tapped two sugar trees, which stand 
just within the woods, on the side of a very steep hill fronting to- 
ward the south. As there are no other trees of this description 
near enough to be tapped by him, his experiments have been confined 
to them. They yielded, on an average, twenty pounds weight of 
sugar annually, beside the molasses made from the sap, after it be- 
came too weak to be profitably boiled down into sugar. 

As every kind of fruit known to us, yields more abundantly when 
the trees stand in orchards, unincumbered by other vegetation, there 
is every reason to believe that if the two trees just mentioned, were 
thus circumstanced, that the product would be greatly increased. 
But what seems to be still much more important, is, that the sap 
will not so readily escape if the farmer be vigilant, when the camp 
is placed near to his house, and there is very great reason to be- 
lieve that the escape of the sap is the principal cause of the mark- 
ed difference, between what is called good and bad seasons for mak- 
ing sugar. 

I have observed, by tapping the trees to make the experiment, that 
so soon as the weather happens to become moderately warm, early 
in February the sap begins to run. As the sugar makers, however^, 
have in general to go to a distant and ill contrived camp, many of 



395 

ihem consider it useless to begin, in consequence of any trivial ad* 
vantage, that might be obtained during the short time which may 
occur before the running of the sap be entirely stopped by the cold 
and unfavourable vi'eather, which commonly happens soon after the 
warm spells which take place early in the season. If, however, the 
farmer happens to go to his camp when any of the warm spells take 
place in February or March, it commonly happens that by the time 
he gets every thing fixed for business the weather changes and be- 
comes so cold, that the running of the sap ceases, and he returns 
home, before any thing cf consequence is effected. 

In this way he is frequently baffled, more or less, until the sea- 
son for making sugar has passed by ; of consequence the quantity 
obtained when the season for making it is generally difficult, sel- 
dom affords a moderate compensation for his labour. The cause of 
the farmer's vexatious disappointment seems to be evident. When 
the weather happens to be so changeable, nature, as soon as the 
warm spell sets the sap in motion, is industriously employed in ap- 
plying it to enlarge the buds, which form the leaves, blossom and 
seed of the tree. 

Now it would appear, that notwithstanding some loss must neces- 
sarily occur, when such frequent changes in the temperature cause 
the sap so often to descend ; that if the camp stood near the farmer's 
house he might very readily gather all the water that could be ob- 
tained, during the shorter as well as the longer spells which favour- 
ed the running of it. Of course that the loss sustained in conse- 
quence of the seasons being very difficult would be far less than 
that which commonly happens from the present general mode of 
management. 

I am still the more confirmed in this opinion from observing that 
vrhen the camp is near to the farmer's house, and he can and does 
begin earlier, and oftener takes the advantage which the warm spells 
of weather soon present, he invariably makes much more sugar than 
those who pursue a contrary course ; though nothing like as much as 
I believe he would obtain, if he could only be convinced that the 
same quantity, or nearly so, of sap, circulates yearly in the tree, 
and that the ])rincipal reason why he obtains so little some seasons, 
is, that it escapes his vigilance. 

The favourable seasons for making sugar, are produced by the 
weather continuing too cold for the sap to circulate even in this 
hardy tree, until late in the season. Then if the days be generally 
warm for the season, and the weather also clear, accompanied by 
sufficient frost through the night to freeze the surface of the ground, 
(which commonly happens if the nights be clear,) the quantity of 
sap obtained from the trees is very great. If the nights, however, 
happen to be mild and without frost, as well as the days, the quan- 
tity is greatly curtailed. This is the generally received opinion of 
farmers, and is also clearly demonstrated by practice : none of them, 
hawever, assign any reason for it. In fact it seems like many other 
things, beyond tlie reach of demonstration. A plausible cause might 



a96 

be assigned, bttt then this cause would seem to be opposed to what 
takes place when the sap runs irregularlj. 

The seed of the sugar tree vegetates freely, when blown from, it 
on our ploughed grounds; therefore, no possible difficulty can occur 
in rearing camps of it. The seed may be first sown on beds where 
the soil is rich, light and well prepared, and the plants be kept free 
from weeds and properly thinned, until of a sufficient size to be 
planted in a nursery, fmm which, when large enough, they may be 
safely removed and planted in the camp. 

This tree will grow on any soil which is rich enough to grow an 
apple orchard ; still we all know that the latter prospers best where 
the soil is good. As a speedy maturity is equally as desirable in a 
eugar camp, I would advise the cultivator to select a good grass lay : 
after manut-ing it well, and growing a well cultivated crop of maize 
on it, plant the sugar camp; but not till after the grounds have been 
well cultivated with the hoc and tined harrow, without turning up 
the sod or manure. After this, form right angles of twelve feet re- 
gularly, by a very shallow furrow with the plough ; at each of these 
angles, dig a hole sufficiently deep to plant the sugar tree; but on 
no consideration put the plant any deeper into the soil, than it stood 
in the nursery ; in which it ought not to havB been planted any 
deeper than it stood in the bee from which it was first removed. 
Nature best determines the depth the roots of every tree ought to 
take, and knows full well, even when the seed is scattered on the 
surface, how to cause the roots of the plant to dip as deep into the 
earth as they should go. If the hole made for planting be dug 
no deeper than has been directed, the manure at the bottom of the 
sod will not be disturbed. It should, however, be made sufficiently 
wide to give room for the roots of the plant to be spread abroad in 
the same position as they stood in tlie nursery. Great care ought to 
be taken to plant the tree, so that the same sides of it as fronted 
north and south in the nursery, should do the same in the camp; 
otherwise the growth of it will be retarded, until nature has alter- 
ed the economy of the plant to suit the alteration in the position of 
its sides. 

It will be improper to trim the trees, either before or after they 
are removed from the nursery, further than removing suckers or 
useless and injurious sprouts; on no consideration slmuld the main 
shoot which forms the top of the tree, be cut off or otherwise muti- 
lated. Money or labour is never more profitably expended, than 
in staking and securing trees ; it is, however, seldom effectually 
done, although it is clearly seen, that the action of the winds on the 
top of the tree, keeps the roots in such perpetual agitation, that it 
is long before they become established in the ground. This greatly 
retards the general growth of the plants, and very often destroys 
many of them. Two- stakes should be driven very firmly into the 
ground opposite to each other on opposite sides of the tree, but so 
as not to injure the roots of it. A strong twisted band of straw 
ought to be extended fram one stake to the other, also wrapped 



397 

round the tree In that way which is best calculated to keep it from 
being removed in any direction by the winds. 

The D hoe, together with the hoe and tined harrows, used as be- 
fore directed, will keep the soil free from grass and weeds, until 
the shade from the plants and from the foliage growing on them, to« 
gether with the fall of the leaves, render it impossible for grass or 
other injurious vegetation to grow in sufficient quantity to injure 
the trees. After this all cultivation should cease. A fence, how- 
ever, sufficiently close, particularly near and at the bottom, must be 
erected around the camp to prevent the leaves from being blown 
off" by the winds. The fallen vegetation, and the animal matter in- 
troduced by it, together with that introduced by the living vegeta- 
tion, will supply sufficient manure, and keep the soil open and mel- 
low for the roots of the plants. 

The close planting is intended to produce these valuable effects 
earlier, and in doing of this to save much labour. The supernume- 
rary trees may be cut out and sold, at the time which will best fur- 
ther the growth of the remaining plants ; this, however, should not 
be done, until injury was not to be expected from letting in more 
sun and air to the plants than could be readily avoided. If one-half 
the trees be thus cut out, the remaining half will form a camp, in 
which the trees will stand twenty-four feet apart at right angles. 
It can, however, be only known by actual practice, how far the su- 
gar trees when formed into a regular orchard should stand apart ; 
still it is believed that twenty-four feet may be safely considered as 
the proper distance, until practice has more correctly determined 
what the distance ought to be. 

Here I beg leave to observe, that if double the number of apple 
or other grafted fruit trees, were planted in the commencement ot^ 
planting an orchard, be the ultimate form of the trees what it may, 
the product would be greatly increased, from the time the trees 
began to bear, until it became necessary to remove the extra num- 
ber. The wood of the apple tree is very valuable for fuel, and also 
for some other purposes ; consequently would sell for more money 
than the increased expense arising from this mode of management. 

But to return to the sugar tree ; I believe it is seldom tapped in 
our forests when it is less than six inches in diameter ; no informa- 
tion of mine will therefore determine how small they may be profit- 
ably tapped. As no injury, however, can arise from tapping such 
as the cultivator means to remove, I would advise him to make the 
experiment on those trees when they have attained three inches 
in diameter. If the tapping of them progressed regularly year after 
year, it would determine whether removing the sap injured the 
growth of the tree, and also the extent of the injury, if any there 
should be. 

The foliage of the sugar tree is handsome. An orchard or camp 
formed of them would add greatly to the beauty of a farm ; espe^ 
cially as a conviction of profit and utility would add much to the 
native beauty of the plant. Like a hedge, however, or an apple 



898 

erchard it will require some time to bring a sugar camp into active 
use ; I therefore fear that my labour so far as this invaluable tree 
Riay be concerned will be in vain. 

The sugar tree prospers where the ground is moderately dry, and 
is also seen growing where it is very wet ; still they generally stand 
much thicker where the soil is rather inclined to be moist, as often 
happens on our highest hills here ; this moisture, however, is sel- 
dom very obvious, until after the grounds have been long enough 
cultivated without attention to grass or enriching manure, to ex- 
haust much of the vegetable matter that abounded when they were 
first cleared from their wood, I would therefore advise the farmer 
to form his camp on grounds which are moderately retentive, if such 
are to be found near to his dwelling house. If, however, I were 
now living on the farm formerly occupied by me, near to Philadel- 
phia, I should not fear the result of forming a sugar camp on any 
part ttf it, notwithstanding the texture of the soil differs widely. 
Nay more, I should have but little doubt of these trees succeeding 
well in the sands that form the shores in New Jersey, opposite to 
Philadelphia, provided these sands were thickly set in grass, well 
manured, and but one crop of maize grown on them, previously to 
planting the sugar camp. 

As I write where I can neither refer to books nor men for inform- 
ation of the probable product of an acre of sugar cane, well culti- 
vated, in a soil and climate favourable to the growth of it, it is im- 
possible for me to determine the comparative product with that of 
an acre of sugar trees. 

The difference, however, in the amount of the produce, must be 
very much in favour of the cane, or the neat clear profit arising from 
the sugar tree, will be the greatest. The sale of the timber, after 
the tree becomes too old to be profitably kept for making sugar, 
must more than defray the expense of rearing the plants, and tlie 
I'ent of tlni soil, before the camp comes into active use. A simple 
operation obtains the juice, without the aid of slavery's hoe ; or the 
tormenting lash of merciless drivers ; or the costly machinery and 
additional labour necessary to compel the cane, after it has been 
expensively cultivated, to part with its juice. 

The molasses made from the sap of the sugar tree is much better 
than we import from the West Indies, and infinitely clearer. As 
this is commonly obtained from the last running of the sap, it seems 
to be an extra profit. The drainings of the sugar also supply an 
excellent and clear molasses when care is taken to preserve it. 
No question but a spirit equal in quality to any made in the West 
Indies, may be obtained from the juice of the sugar tree. I have 
never seen whiter refined sugar than that made of the brown sugar, 
from this plant. One very great advantage derived frouj the cul- 
tivation of this tree, is the certainty of its proceeds not being con- 
taminated with the great and disgusting quantity of decaying ani- 
mal matters necessarily mixed with the product of the sugar cane. 
The latter is gathered when aninialcula of every kind prevail j the 



399 

former, before they predominate to any extent that would claim 
serious attention. 

Enough has been published on the methods, pursued in boiling, 
clearing, graining and draining sugar, to render any thing further 
on that head useless: especially as the processes employed in making- 
sugar, are so very simple, that care and cleanliness seem to be the 
principal necessary accomplishment of a sugar "boiler. It may, 
however, be proper to remark, that the great waste of fuel in boil- 
ing sugar in the back-Vv'oods, where timber seems to be in the way, 
renders even the cutting and carrying of it to the boilers, expensive, 
if labour be estimated. It is, therefore, evident, that if sugar camps 
be planted in the older settlements, the kettles should be fixed in 
brick or stone work, with enclosed fire places so constructed as to 
consume the least possible quantity of fuel. If the sugar be boiled 
in this May, very little fuel will be necessary, provided the fire 
|)laces and flues be well constructed. A slight house or shed, with 
proper flues to carry off' the smoke, will make the business com- 
fortable and convenient to those who do the work. 

Cast iron kettles are exclusively used here for boiling. It looks 
equally as well as any imported sugar when well made, although I 
have never known of its being cleared in this neighbourhood, with any 
other article than eggs and new milk, and a little of either seems to an- 
swer the purpose : more especially, when used by those who preserve 
a proper attention to cleanliness, which seems to cost but little extra 
labour, as the attentions necessary to have every thing in complete 
order, seem to be few and extremely simple. Copper or tin utensils 
are known to be unhealthy, unless used with much care and atten- 
tion, I would, therefore, advise them not to be introduced in making 
sugar. Troughs are used in this woody country, to receive the 
juice which runs from the spiles. AVhere timber is not an incum- 
brance, common earthen pots, with ears, will be cheaper and muali 
better, as any kind of wood, while the troughs are green and new, 
will communicate a more or less disagreeable taste to the sugar. 
Some woods are very injurious to the taste of it. The troughs also 
very frequently crack open and become leaky. As the surface of 
a trough is much wider than that of a pot, fewer impurities will ac- 
cumulate in the latter. 

A low wheeled cart to carry a tight cask around or through cer- 
tain parts of the camp, as the case may happen to require, to re- 
ceive the sap from the pots or troughs, would save much labour. 
The sap will also be much less wasted than happens when it is car- 
ried by hand, in buckets, to the place where it is boiled. Very 
large troughs are generally made of the trunks of trees, to receive 
the sap when it cannot be boiled, so fast as it runs from the spiles. 
As the farmer's cider casks, however, are mostly empty before the 
time for making sugar comes on, these will be found better than 
troughs, provided they be made very clean. 

I will conclude this subject by remarking, that it appears clearly, 
f'om what is known of the economy of the sugar tree, that any cli- 



400 

mate which furnishes either in the winter or spring, moJerateljr 
warm days, succeeded hy frosts hard enough to feeeze the surface 
of the ground at night, is calculated to grow that tree, with much 
more profit to the cultivator, than any plant that he can rear and 
sell, to purchase his sugar from foreigners ; that as habit has made 
this article an actual necessary in our general mode of living in 
this country, we ought to make it ourselves ; especially, as the high 
price of it, occasioned by the late war, clearly shows the great ad- 
vantage of being independent of other nations for articles that our 
own soil and industry will always furnish at a lower price. There 
is also another powerful motive which ought to induce every farmer 
to make at least as much sugar as is consumed in his family, as he 
may do it at a time when the general concerns of his farm are by 
no means pressing on him, and with but very little labour. 

It appears that those parts of the United States where the sugar 
tree will prosper, may very readily make, without interfering with 
their agricultural concerns, more sugar than will supply the con- 
sumption of the whole Union, even if this article was not made from 
the sugar cane, in those parts of our extensive country where that 
plant prospers. 

Since writing the above, Mr. O'Keath, a gentlemen who resides 
near Ebensburg, in Cambria county, informs me that nine years 
ago, he took up in April, three hundred and fifty plants of the sugar 
tree, which are growing very plentifully in his neighbourhood, and 
planted them on a plum bottom, on lands which he owns at a con- 
siderable distance from where he lives, and on which no sugar trees 
grow. It is now twelve months since he last saw the plants. At 
that time they had grown to be as thick as his leg, although no 
care had been taken to remove the native plum trees, when or 
after he planted the sugar trees among them. The distance, to-» 
gather with the means of transportation, induced him to select 
such as were very small. 

Every person with whom I have conversed respecting the growth 
of the sugar tree, agrees in saying that it grows very fast when not 
shaded by large forest trees. One of my neighbours, in whom I 
can confide, informs me that when he made his clearing nine years 
ago, he observed a young sugar tree, which at that time was scarce- 
ly as thick as his finger; that he has often noticed it since, ao4 
that it is now full as lar^e, if not larger than his thi^h. 



BOOK IV. 
ON GENTLEMAN FARMING: 

ALSO, 

ON CIRCUMSCRIBED FARMING ; 

OR THE BEST MODE TO BE PURSUED, WHEN THE CAPITAl 

EMPLOYED IS INSUFFICIENT TO FARM TO THE 

BEST ADVANTAQK. 



Sf. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

Observations on the causes which have increased g'cntleman farming. Their 
expensive estabhshments considered. 

1 HE frequent recurrence of the yellow fever in our seaport 
towns, compelled multitudes of the citizens to take refuge in the 
country. This created a taste for rural pursuits, and induced num- 
bers (whose finances did not well accord with it,) to form country 
establishments. As it was too generally supposed that an addition 
of land for farming, would lessen the expense, this still more inju- 
rious plan was adopted by many ; and immense sums of mone}' 
wasted in a business, with which they were entirely unacquainted. 

Other gentlemen, who have either by their own industry, or from 
inheritance, acquired handsome estates, become tired of the busi- 
ness or pleasures which are pursued in towns. Citizens of this 
description, generally keep carriages for the recreation of them- 
selves and families, and their excursions into the country, are com- 
monly pleasant relaxations from their pursuits in town. This pre- 
pares the mind to be infatuated with rural economy; especially, as 
the grounds in the vicinity of our larger towns have been enriched 
and improved with more taste and skill, than generally takes place 
elsewhere. Luxuriant crops, with numerous flocks and herds, are 
seen in every direction. 

Poets, with other writers, attribute to rural pursuits, all the ra- 
tional pleasures which constitute the chief happiness of man. In 
doing this, they, however, appear to have forgotten that these beau- 
tiful scenes which they so elegantly describe, are the effect of im- 
mense labour and fatigue. 

The gentleman whose imagination has, in all probability, been 
excited by recollecting some of the most appropriate passages from 
these authors, appears also to forget, or not to know, that agricul- 
ture, when properly pursued, under the most favourable circum- 
stances, requires very great attention, both early and late ; and that 
there are very few employments which have more crosses, losses and 
disappointments, necessarily attached to them. An epidemic some- 
times sweeps off live stock, as with the besom of destruction. If 
this does not happen, all animals are liable to disease or accident, 
and a considerable portion of the farmer's stock is vested in them. 
Mildew, smut, with numerous blights, also excessive rains, storms, 
a scorching sun, drought, untimely nipping frosts, and insects, (which 
are sometimes as destructive as an invading army,) destroy the 
farmer's most flattering expectations. 

However, the gentleman seems to expect rest from all his la- 
bours, when he commences farming. Every jaunt into the country 



404 

conOrms this sentiment, and he returns with increased reluctance 
to the smoke, dust, bustle and putrid effluvia of the city. These 
annoyances appear to be greatly exaggerated by his heated imagi- 
nation, and every succeeding excursion increases the delusive ex- 
pectation of happiness in rural pursuits.; which, saying the least of 
■what may happen, will certainly doom a few years of the gentle- 
man's life, to continual perplexity, unless his conduct in the coun- 
try be governed by much caution, ami a very uncommon share of 
prudence. Farming, as it is now practised, (especially by those who 
depend principally upon books,) is a very complex business, and 
if this science were stripped of its complicated absurdities, and 
1-educed to a perfect and simple system of management, still, as it 
is only by practice that we become intimately acquainted with the 
most simple employments, it would seem that the gentleman ought 
to serve an apprenticeship with some distinguished farmer, before he 
embarks on his own account, in a business with which he is entirely 
unacquainted. Certainly, if he be a merchant, he would not trust 
the command of his ship to any person who had never been at sea, 
although he might believe him intimately acquainted with the theory 
of navigation. Vet 1 believe it will be found at least equally ha- 
zardous for a gentleman who can command a plenty of money, and 
possesses a generous disposition, to encounter a farm without prac- 
tical information, unless his theoretical knowledge be founded on 
principles, which are consistent with his peculiar situation, and he 
has sufficient firmness not to deviate from them. As this, however, 
has seldom, if ever, occurred, and it is impossible to say what may 
happen hereafter, I shall proceed to describe what has but too fre- 
quently taken place heretofore. 

When a gentleman wishes to commence farming for the purpose 
«f getting rid of the troubles and vexations of the world, he gene- 
rally resorts to books for information. These clearly and very just- 
ly convince him, that full bred farmers do not generally manage 
their agricultural concerns, any thing like so advantageously as 
might be done : also that much greater profit might be readily ob- 
tained, if farming was properly conducteil. Firmly believing in 
these books, and that they have, at least, taught him the rudiments 
of agriculture, he resolves ; and the farm is bought without duly 
observing, and of course without sufiiciently considering, that the 
different opinions of the authors, give contradictory theories; conse- 
quently he has actually to learn, from his own practice, which of 
them is right ; or whether the whole of them may not be essentially 
^vrong, in many cases in which his prosperity may be highly interest- 
ed. Such information as this in tlie hands of a zealous novice, is some- 
thing like a sword in the hands of an enthusiastic revolutionist, who 
does not distinguish between the rational principles of liberty and 
licentiousness. If the practices recommended by writers on agri- 
culture, were always accompanied with a clear explanation of the 
beneficial causes brought into operation by them, the gentleman 
farmer, even in the commencement of his business, would be much 



405 

Better enabled to determine their probable merit by comparing 
them with practices recommended by other writers on the same 
subject: especially as it may be laid down as a maxim in farming, 
that no practice can be proper if it be opposed to reason. It is 
therefore to this faculty that every writer should apply his subject. 
If this be not done, the reader has either to supply the defect by 
his previous knowledge of the subject, or to remain ignorant, fur- 
ther than bare assertion goes. If he should act on the faith of this, 
he may be egregiously disappointed, as the patient who swallows 
the pills, powders, or anodynes, of an ignorant quack who invents 
specifics to cure, and also to prevent, every disease in nature, and 
boldly offers them to the public, (and but too frequently with suc- 
cess,) although the causes which produce these wonderful effects 
remain a secret not only to his credulous customers but also to 
himself. This is equally applicable to the plain, practical farmers, 
who for the most part are greatly opposed to books on agriculture, 
for which I now Ijelieve (though 1 once thought otherwise) they 
have been toe severely censured. 

This prejudice seems to arise from their being too often disap- 
pointed by the promises of great profit from practices which were 
better calculated to ruin them than increase their revenue, for it 
inust be confessed that but too many of this stamp have appeared. 
They have either been pr6<.licated on elaborate calculations founded 
on erroneous principles, or on certain rounds or courses of crops, 
as if the interest of agriculture was to be promoted by the means 
taken by writers on cookery, who furnish receipts to compound 
dishes agreeable to every palate, as well as to suit every possible 
occasion that may happen, from a wedding and christening to a 
death and funeral. The self-taught Kliyogg, or the Rural Socrates, 
with many other instances, should teach writers on agriculture* 
that nature is not partial to any grade or society in the distribution 
of talents: consequently, that common farmers are very far from 
being so stupid as too many have represented them to be. If sub- 
jects calculated to promote their interest were properly applied to 
their reasoning faculties, they would be as capable of reasoning on 
plain, practical facts, as the learned. 

But to return. So soon as the gentleman takes possession of 
the farm his trouble commences. The previous habits of a family 
from town seem to be immediately opposed to the simplicity of 
rural economy. The dwelling house may be sufficiently large, 
also warm in winter and airy in summer: still, his family or him- 
self too often discover that the floors have been formed with broad 
oak or pine boards which have too many knots in them. The chim- 
ney or fire places are too large, and being without either marble 
hearths or jambs, are intolerable: the ceilings are too low, and 
the plastering has become scaly from frequent whitewashing, and 
cannot be made to look well; the windows are entirely too 
small, and small glass divided by too much wood in the sash 
excludes the light; the staircases are confined, and the height of 



406 

tlie steps will fatigue the family. A single row of small glass., 

f)laced over the top of the front door, had been found sufficient to 
ight the former farmer on his way up stairs, or to enable him to 
find a bag or any other thing deposited in the entry. The gentle- 
man's family, however, cannot grope in the dark; and, besides this 
inconvenience, the large door posts seem better calculated to sup- 
port a gate than the front door of a gentleman's house. The steps 
leading from the door, in place of being marble, are made of free 
stone; the height of them is quite too great, they extend but little 
on either side of the door; and, as the last step terminates at the 
bottom of the door, still there is no platform in front 

A consultation is held, and frequently ends in the condemnation 
of a convenient and very useful house, well calculated to promote 
the future ease and tranquillity of a rational farmer ; and it too 
often happens, (even when the gentleman cannot conveniently 
spare the money,) that the building is completely gutted and mo- 
dernized, or appropriated to accommodate the hired farmer or 
head man and his family, and a new one is erected for the master. 
If the gentleman determines on the latter, he acts wisely, as 
after much money has been spent in altering even an excellent 
house, that has been built to suit the convenience and finances of 
a plain, practical farmer, it is but a botched piece of business at 
last; however, in either case, the money commonly expended does 
not accord with any rational estimate of the income that may be 
derived from the farm. 

But what makes the matter still worse, the alterations and 
amendments too seldom stop at the mansion house. An ice house, 
with various other buildings and conveniences which a plain, prac- 
tical farmer seldom thinks of erecting, seem to be considered ne- 
cessary to the eistablishment of the gentleman farmer. 

These things in detail appear to be trifles, but a very serious ex- 
pense occurs before they are finished, as they are commonly erected 
on the most approved plan, and too often expensively ornamented. 
The garden is seldom found sufficiently large or properly arranged. 
It is therefore considerably enlarged and properly laid out and 
regulated, the walks graveled, and a green or hothouse too often 
erected, where the ornamental and useful exotics of southern cli- 
mates are abundantly introduced. Besides the pleasure arising 
from seeing, displaying and using these rare productions of nature, 
it is probable tl)at the gentleman has been led to believe, from ob- 
serving that the nursery men obtain very high prices for those 
plants, than his gardener and market man may readily dispose of 
the increase arising from the original stock to considerable advan- 
tage. Summerhouses are also built so as to adorn the premises, 
and secure a pleasant retreat from the rays of the sun ; and if there 
be any stream which favours the project, a fishpond is too often 
made. 

The plain, practical farmer has commonly before his door a yard 
of a moderate size well covered with grass. This, with the bor- 



407 

ders round the beds in his garden, arc often decorated by his wife 
and daughters with the common but interesting flowers and shrubs 
generally employed in the country for this purpose. These, with 
the adjacent fields, (if they happen to be well cultivated,) display 
the genuine features of rural simplicity. The attention necessary to 
this simple but lovely establishment, requires no more labour than 
the leisure time that can be readily appropriated to it without in- 
terfering with the business that should be done either in the house 
or on the farm. As the human mind craves, and, if it be possible, 
will have amusement, it would be difficult to devise one that 
would be more rational, interesting, or innocent than this. 

But this simple system of economy too seldom accords with the 
views of the gentleman farmer, and several acres of an adjacent 
field are added to a yard, which is now called a lawn. This is laid 
out in proper form with graveled, serpentine walks, wilderness, 
&c.; also decorated with ornamental trees and flowers, which arc 
readily obtained, when money is plenty, from the nursery men in 
the vicinity of the town. 

Although the former farmer may have had a sufficiency of fruit 
to supply his family with a plenty of it, cider, brandy, &c. and 
the residue being carefully gathered by himself and his family and 
taken to market, made his garden and orchard profitable to him, 
the gentleman too frequently discovers that the fruit is not of the 
most approved kind: therefore orders are sent to the best nursery 
men for trees, bushes, vines, &c. of every description, that are the 
most valuable. 

The barn and other out buildings are too often considered in- 
conveniently constructed ; they also undergo extensive alterations, 
or new ones are erected on a proper plan. Marble has been used 
in some parts of these buildings, and much ornamental work em- 
ployed in the construction of them. 

It frequently happens, that notwithstanding the fencing was suf- 
ficient, with some little mending, to have secured the former far- 
mer's crops for some considerable time to come, they are subject- 
ed to an expensive repair. If there be any worm fencing, it is ge- 
nerally condemned, and post and railing put up in its place. 

The roads through the farm are often considered inconveniently 
situated, and others are made where they should be. As time has 
worn otf the soil from the old roads, they are filled up with rich 
mould. Gullies and sometimes quarries in the fields are also filled 
up, and the surface enriched to promote vegetation. Inequalities 
in the surface of the soil have been leveled through the fields. 
Open and under drains formed where springy or boggy places ap- 
pear. Stumps are hoed up by the roots. Rocks blown and removed, 
and the space occupied by them filled up and covered with good 
soil. Ditches are sometimes formed between the fields and the 
woods, to cut oft* the communication of the roots of the trees, so 
that the crops may not be injured by them. 



408 

The gentleman is commonly careful in the commencement oFhi» 
career, to collect every implement of husbandry; and too often 
adds others that are highly recommended by books, which also fur- 
nish engravings of them, from \vhich he gets them made, but too 
commonly not without much trouble, perplexity and expense. Of 
this, however, he does not complain ; being clearly convinced that 
the agriculture of this country is very imperfect, when compared 
with that of Great Britain, which he resolves to imitate in his prac- 
tice. But notwithstanding his very laudable and patriotic inten- 
tion, it generally happens that his workmen do not know how to 
handle these outlandish tools, and having a mortal hatred against 
every thing that is new, unless they be convinced of the utility of it, 
they designedly, (but as if by accident,) break them against some 
unlucky stump, stone or »ate post; being determined not to puz- 
zle their brains with learning the use of them, and very unfortunately 
the gentleman is incapable of instructing them : therefore, after 
much time and money have been spent in fruitless attempts to bring 
them into use, they are finally laid aside, until they are better un- 
derstood. If this should never happen, the purchase money is also, 
lost. 

A plenty of working horses and oxen is purchased, and of the best 
quality, provided the highest price can certainly effect this purpose. 
It being generally determined to breed from the best stock, 
bulls, cows, rams, ewes, &c. are selected from the flocks and herds 
of the most approved breeders. The breeders soon discover the 
talents of the purchaser; and the gentleman seldom fails in pro- 
curing the best stock the country can afford, if very exorbitant 
prices enhance the value of the animals. Price is too generally a 
secondary consideration with him; especially if he be determined 
to excel at the cattle shows, and also to send to market the first 
rate butter and cheese. It is too often believed that his books fur- 
nish him with receipts which will enable him to effect this purpose. 
Of the cattle show, I know but little, having never been there. I 
do, however, know that the gentleman ought to have considered that 
although his receipts may be excellent, and his ingenuity equal to 
reducing them into actual practice, a dairy requires in this country 
the laborious attention of the mistress of the family. The previous 
habits of ids lady render it impossible, without risking her life, 
for her to stand over her shoe tops in mud or dung, or half leg deep in 
snow, until the cows are milked, and after this, to see that the most 
trivial thing belonging to the management of the dairy is properly 
done, even to slopping the cows and feeding the pigs. If this be not 
done, or the gentleman be not more fortunate than common, every 
thing will be mismanaged ; and his fine stately cows will soon be- 
come dry. Therefore, in place of selling butter and cheese, he will 
have the mortification of depending on the plain practical farmers 
around him for butter, more than half the year ; and his cheese, if 
any should happen to be made, will never be fit to appear at his 
table. 



409 

Although the gentleman expects much future improvement from 
the manure which will be made by his extensive stock, still, he is 
seldom unmindful of the present time, and his carts are busily em- 
ployed in bringing large quantities from the city. It, however, too 
seldom happens that he is acquainted with the quality of manure, 
and his carters find it much easier to load, and also to haul such as 
consists principally of straw. This actually reduces the value of 
it more than one-half; so that every cart-load which costs the plain 
practical farmers in his neighbourhood, after it is hauled, two dol- 
lars, commonly costs the gentleman four or five dollars, if the real 
value in place of the bulk be estimated. Although the gentleman 
intends to farm much better than they do, this single but serious 
slip in the beginning, seems to place him so far in the background, 
as to render the contest at least very doubtful. 

If, in riding the roads near to one of our cities, we happen to 
meet a cart filled with long strawy dung, and ask the driver for 
whom he is hauling it, we generally hear that it belongs to some 
gentleman farmer. 

Having gone through the long and expensive catalogue of the gen- 
tleman's improvements for the accommodation of his family, and his 
preparations for farming, I will, in the next chapter, make such 
remarks on the different subjects, as I believe may be useful to 
this highly interesting, but too often, very mistaken class of farmers. 



r,jf 



CIIAPTEll XLlll. 

Kemax'ks on the gentleman's country establishment, and a more economical 
management proposed. 

I WILL now make my remarks on what has been advanced in the 
preceding chapter. 

Until the gentleman's buildings are so far finished, as to afford a 
tolerably comfortable residence for his family, they generally con- 
tinue in town ; consequently his visits to the farm are transient ; 
and having collected together masons, carpenters, painters, &c. 
with the necessary labourers to wait on them ; also gardeners, with 
workmen to assist them in forming the garden and lawn, and to 
plant a vast number of trees, shrubs, bushes, vines, flowers ,&c ; 
likewise fence makers, ditchers, blasters, ploughmen, carters, and 
labourers to do the business on the farm ; the wages and provision 
for such a host must cost an immense sum of money. When the 
wanton waste, depredation, and idleness, that naturally take place, 
where no care can be taken, and every person follows the bent of 
his own inclination without restraint, are considered, it is reasonable 
to suppose, that on an average every thing that is done, costs him 
two or three times as much as it ought to do, especially as many of 
the people in the vicinity of our cities have been accustomed to prey 
upon gentlemen farmers, and know full well how to practise every 
species of deception and chicanery to effect this purpose ; and as 
the gentleman's head man or farmer is but too generally on a level 
with them, he commonly finds it contrary to his interest or inclina- 
tion to expose their faults. 

If the gentleman should finally get tired of farming, as too com- 
monly happens, in consequence of saddling it with a useless and enor- 
mous expense, he will soon discover that what he has expended 
over and above useful improvements is lost. Useless brick, mortar 
and lumber, united with every expensive ornamental work, form no 
part of the estimate made of the value of the premises by a prudent 
purchaser. He knows full well, that no profit which can be derived 
from farming, will pay him an interest on it : also, that the necessary 
repairs of the extra buildings will be a continued tax on the farm, 
unless he leaves that part of them to b& inhabited by cats and owls, 
which would be unpleasant to those Who like to see every thing- 
round them in good condition. It will likewise be found that the 
ornamented grounds, which cost the gentleman so much money, 
and subjected him to so much fatigue and perplexity, will be more 
likely to diminish than increase the value of the farm. The judi- 
cious purchaser will calculate that if they remain as they are, the 
rent of the land is lost ; also, that unless he submits to the annual 



411 

tax of keeping them in order, the whole, in place of a part, will be- 
come a wilderness, and spoil the appearance of his farm ; therefore 
expensive alterations must take place, before the obstacles which 
folly has placed in the way of cultivation can be removed. The trees 
and shrubs must be grubbed up, and the gravel and other trash op- 
posed to vegetation removed, before the grounds can he profitably 
employed. 

Whereas if the gentleman had properly considered the subject, 
his own good sense would have informed him, that no art of man, 
aided by all the beauties of nature, could possibly decorate the 
grounds round a farmer's house, with any variety half as interest- 
ing as luxuriant crops judiciously cultivated. The beautifully green 
headlands around his fields, when mowed for the cattle while the 
grasses are still young, would form a useful and interesting carpet, 
adorned with the small and simple flowers of the season, furnishing 
extensive walks and scenes truly in unison with rural simplicity, 
and the economy of farming, as well as honourable to the taste and 
good sense of the owner, especially if he be actually very wealthy, 
and might without the least inconvenience possess all those expen- 
sive and useless toys which are so well calculated to divert little 
minds ; such a gentleman farmer would do honour to his profession, 
for his example would not tempt other gentlemen in his neighbour- 
hood, who were less opulent, to injure their finances by aping his 
splendour, or else induce them to avoid an intimate intercourse, 
lest the happiness of their families might be blighted by the crea- 
tion of artificial and useless wants. 

It may, however, be proper to observe, that if the gentleman pos- 
sess a princely estate, and has resolved to live in style, it is cer- 
tainly no business of mine ; still, as he professes to admire agricul- 
ture, and wishes to promote its interest to the utmost of his power, 
it would be unpardonable in him to saddle it with expenditures, 
entirely inconsistent with the economy of farming, especially as 
this may be readily avoided. 

I therefore beg the liberty of proposing what seems to be a ra- 
tional plan, and one well calculated to gratify the gentleman's am- 
bition, without injuring the reputation of gentleman farming: pro- 
vided he is not so engrossed by other pleasures as to prevent his 
personal attention, both early and late, to the business of the farm. 
Unless a gentleman be as fond of agriculture as a sportsman of his 
dogs and gun, he cannot possibly derive any more pleasure from it 
than the latter would do by keeping guns and packs of dogs for 
the use of those whom he had hired to procure game for his table, 
and to kill the foxes in the neighbourhood, when he knew that mo- 
ney would do this with much less trouble and expense, and that 
he loved his ease too well to derive any pleasure from such fa- 
tiguing sports. 

Now Ave all know that the sportsman is indefatigable, and that 
his pleasure arises from active pursuit. He will rise long before 
diy to join the chase in time; leap fences and ditches, and ride at 



412 

full speed through the woods. If he happen to fall from his horse, 
and his limbs are not dislocated, he eagerly remounts and pursues 
the hounds with redoubled activity, until he regains what he has 
lost by this temporary derangement: nor does he wait to shake oft* 
the dust, or scrape off the mud from his clothes; and if his hat be 
not readily found, a handkerchief quickly supplies its place, and 
he hies on without it. Such choice spirits as those are exactly 
calculated for gentlemen farmers, provided they are really in- 
terested in the pursuit, and are resolved to be governed by the ge- 
nuine principles of rural economy, and their previous habits have 
taught them the inestimable advantages that may be derived from 
observation, reflection and calculation; for, on the proper exercise 
of these invaluable principles, the prosperity of gentleman farming 
principally depends. 

When a gentleman possessing these qualifications has purchased 
a farm, and is determined to live in style, I would advise him to 
lay off a sufliciency of ground for the necessary buildings, park, 
lawn, garden, fishpond, &,c., and to charge this, with every im- 
provement made on it, to " Family Establishment," and the re- 
maining acres to the farm. As the taxes will, or ought to be, con- 
siderably increased in consequence of the expensive b'jilding, &c. 
erected for the family, he should be careful not to burden the farm 
with more than its just proportion of them. As his steward, butler, 
huntsman, gamekeeper, groom, coachman, and servants under them, 
together with his housekeeper, chambermaids, nurses, waiters, cook, 
scullions, &c. will have much leisure, he should draw a positive 
line of demarcation between these respectable inhabitants of the 
castle and plebeians on the farm ; otherwise, the latter will become 
very restive and troublesome to him. They will murmur loudly 
against hard labour, while others, whom they will most certainly 
consider no better than themselves, are well paid for lolling a con- 
siderable portion of their time in the shade: nmre especially as 
they do not partake so freely of the delicacies from their em- 
ployer's table, nor have the same opportunity of visiting his store 
rooms and cellars. 

I would also advise the gentleman to keep a will always ready 
made, ordering the separate sale of the "Family Establishment," 
and of the farm; lest in the last act of his life he might disgrace 
ger.tleman farming. If both should happen to be sold together, the 
■world (which in cases of this kind seldom if ever discriminates 
properly) will attribute the enormous loss arising from the sale to 
gerjtieman farming. If, however, the will be made, the gentleman 
may have the satisfaction of feeling easy on his dying pillow; at 
least so far as agriculture may be concerned: for his farming ac- 
counts will clearly demonstrate to the world, that after the farm 
has been charged with its first cost, and every necessary rational 
improvement made on it, that it is actually capable of producing 
a neat, clear annual income of at least ten per cent, on the aggre- 
gate amount, and also a like interest on the capital necessary to 



413 

carry it on : even after full allowance has been made for wear and 
tear, and also for the depreciation in value of horses grown older 
in his service, together with every necessary repair done to the 
buildings, fencing, &c. This is not all; for, although temporary 
depreciations in real property will occur from various causes, it is 
a well known fact, that, on the whole, its value increases with the 
increase of the population and prosperity of the country. It will 
also be found, if the gentleman has managed judiciously, that one 
acre of the soil, taking the whole on an average, will produce more 
than three acres did at the time he purchased the farm ; unless, 
indeed, it was at that time more highly improved than farms gene- 
rally are. For talents, capital and industry are capable of eff'ect- 
ing an immense improvement in the soil, in a much shorter time 
than the probable existence of purchasers in general. 

A gentleman should have all his buildings finished before he re- 
moves to the farm. The whole ought to be erected by contract; 
the undertakers finding all the materials. If this be done, they 
will seldom cost half so much as they would do in the usual way. 
Much trouble and vexation will also be avoided, as his only care 
will be to observe that the business is properly executed. 

The gentleman will also find it much to his interest, when it is 
practicable, to have his mowing, reaping and cradling done by 
the acre, and his corn fodder cut and gathered in the same way; 
his manure hauled out to the fields by the load, of so many cubic 
feet in each; his grounds ploughed and harrowed by the acre, him- 
self or the contractors finding the teams; ditching done by the 
perch, and fencing by the pannel; wood chopped by the cord, and 
hauled in the same way; corn husked and cribbed by the bushel; 
it and other grain threshed in the same way; removing stumps, 
rocks and other obstacles by the acre or job; clearing woodlands 
in the same way. The undertakers should either find their own 
board, or pay for it when they are not working,* as this will not 
only lessen the expense, but also stimulate them to more industry. 

No live stock should be purchased, or any crops cultivated by 
the gentleman, until he removes to the farm. It is ten to one but 
the former will be so much neglected through the winter that they 
will not sell for as much in the spring as they cost in the fall, al- 
though much money has been expended for food and attendance 
on them. It is also more than probable, that crops grown at his 
expense during his absence or transient visits to the farm, would 
not sell for half the money they cost. 

But as it is of the utmost consequence to hasten the improve- 
ment of the soil, and also to provide sufficient food for an extensive 
stock of cattle, the fields which are not in grass should be let out 
on shares to the farmers in his neighbourhood to be sown in small 
grain: either on one or more ploughings, as may best accord with 

• Disputes and complaining', however, would be better avoided by charging- 
them a moderate price for board the whole time the job is in band, and paying' 
ihem more for doing the work. 



414 

die views of the cultivator. On these grounds red clover ought to 
be sown early in the spring. If gypsum be sown on them, hay and 
pasture will abound. The grounds may be rough, and weeds too 
plentiful ; still, this is of but trivial consequence, when compared 
with the great advantage which may be derived from this invalu- 
able practice. 

It was by these means that the very rapid improvement was ef- 
fected on the farm, in the vicinity of Philadelphia, formerly occu- 
pied by me. 

I would advise the gentleman, even if he should remove imme- 
diately to the farm, to put out on shares, all the fields that are not 
in grass, and which may not be wanted for the commencement of 
his first course of crops. 

These should be very limited until he becomes better acquainted 
with farming. This will enable him to execute the little h'e under- 
takes, with more care and skill : also prevent the heavy losses, that 
but too often arise from gentlemen aiming at too much in the be- 
ginning. This is not all ; for but very light crops of grain are to 
be expected from a hasty and imperfect cultivation of a thin soil ; 
especially when conducted by a person who has not sufficient in- 
fori (ation to employ every favourable circumstance to the best 
advantage; consequently, if he should only get the straw for his 
share of the crop, it will be better than to risk the cultivation of all 
the fields himself; but it is probable he may make a much better 
contract than this. Here it seems proper to remark that, although 
it may be found necessary to meet the views of the farmer, to ad- 
mit him to plough more than once, it is not only less expensive, 
but also far better to sow on but one ploughing, as the animal and 
vegetable matter is far better secured from useless waste ; and un- 
less the grounds be often ploughed, harrowed and rolled, a smooth- 
er surface for mowing the clover is generally obtained by one 
ploughing than more, if the furrow slices be well turned, and le- 
veled by the roller, previously to harrowing and sowing the small 
grain. 

The produce of a highly improved and well cultivated farm, is 
very great. If extensive barns and other buildings, sufficient to 
store the whole of these bulky articles, be erected in the plainest, 
but at the same time, in the best way, together with only such a 
dwelling house as is commonly built by the plain, but wealthy 
Pennsylvania farmer, the whole will amount to more money than 
the estate will bring, unless a favourable opportunity offers when it 
may happen to be sold. As the rise in the price of land frequent- 
ly covers the loss, this serious evil is too seldom seen or consider- 
ed. This, however, is not all, for the interest and repairs on the 
multiplied mass of building, will amount to a considerable sum, 
and is a yearly tax on the farm. When, in most instances, sinsple 
and cheap conveniences, would secure the crops better from waste, 
and also furnish preferable shelter for live stock, where they might 
he fattened with much less labour. England, though vastly too 



415 

expensive in her agricultural pursuits, (since it has become fashion- 
able for gentlemen to farm in that country,) is much more economi- 
cal in the erection of farm buildings, than Pennsylvania, and in fact 
ought to be. 

If it costs the owners of lands in England, as much for farm 
buildings, in proportion to the surface of the soil, as it costs too 
many Pennsylvania farmers, they would be entirely ruined. Here 
we very frequently see large piles of building erected on not more 
than from one hundred to a hundred and fifty acres of land, though 
the average product per acre, falls considerably short of that of 
Great Britain ; when if half the money expended on useless stone 
and mortar, had been judiciously laid out in live stock and the 
improvement of the soil, the product would be at least equal, for 
our soil is naturally as good, and our climate is vastly more favour- 
able to vegetation than the climate of England. Now if it be a 
fact that the plain practical farmer is seldom remunerated for 
erecting very extensive, but plain buildings on a farm, it conse- 
quently follows that gentlemen farmer's extensive and splendid 
establishments, must be very injudicious, as well as injurious to 
themselves, and the interest of gentleman farming. 

Regular and well formed fences look well, and of course should 
be preferred when the old ones are actually worn out ; provided 
they are equally good, and not more expensive than others that will 
answer every purpose quite as well. The use of a fence is to de- 
fend the field. Beauty should never supersede economy in the 
practice of farming. Where land is cheap, and timber an incum- 
brance, a fence made by heaping up the logs, though far from being 
handsome, should be preferred ; especially by gentlemen farmers, for 
they ought to patronise economy in their neighbourhood. Such a 
fence is formed by materials which must be removed before the 
grounds can be cultivated. 

A sufficiency of them may as well be heaped up for a fence, 
as heaped and burned on the clearing ; particularly as they are last- 
ing, and may be readily repaired by the falling timber, and are, 
if well made, the best defence. Even the falling of the adjacent 
trees does not break them, neither can any domesticated animal 
jump over or break through them. If sheep or hogs climb over them, 
a little brush laid on the top, will eflfectually exclude those in- 
truders. The logs, as is too often done, should not interlock the 
Avhole length of the fence. In that case, if the fire, which is often 
employed by the back-woods fanner, communicates to the fence, it 
is very difficult to stop its progress by removing a part of the logs. 
Therefore, the farmer should be careful to heap the logs in certain 
parts of the fence, so that they may be readily removed aside, to 
put a stop to the progress of the fire. In these places, the logs 
should be sufficiently light to insure the ready removal of them, if 
there should happen to be but one or two persons on the premises, 
when the accident takes place. 

Altering roads is an expensive business, for the soil is worn off' 
from the old ones, and they ought to be sufficiently enriched to 



416 

promote vegetation. When they are actually badly contrived, it 
should be done ; however, not until the gentleman has become suffi- 
ciently acquainted with his business, and also with the premises, to 
enable him to doit properly, and without useless expense. 

I believe the gentleman will never be paid for filling gullies and 
quarries, if it be done off hand, and that he who does it, either in- 
jures his profession, by setting a bad example to his neighbourhood, 
or subjecting himself to the ridicule of it. But if he lay suitable 
materials across the former, in proper places to stop the washings 
that empty into them, time will effect this purpose much sooner than 
some would suppose ; especially if the water furrows, when the field 
is cultivated, be constructed, so far as it may be found practicable, to 
run into them. The water furrows should also be formed to empty 
into the quarries when it can be done. This, together with making 
them the common receptacle for every useless rubbish, (which must 
be removed to some place,) will, in time, fill them up. While these 
slow, but certain processes are in operation, they will set an ex- 
cellent example to the farmers in the neighbourhood ; who but too 
generally, for the want of a little labour and attention, suffer these 
very unseemly nuisances to perpetuate their neglect. 

For the preposterous and very injurious practice of leveling the 
heights and hollows in fields, we are indebted to lEngland. There 
proper machines have been constructed to execute this ruinous 
business with despatch. With these, the soil is removed from the 
heights and emptied into the hollows ; which are already enriched 
by the washings from the heights. By this inconsiderate practice, 
the soil is doubled in the hollows ; and the heights, unless the soil 
be deep, are reduced to sterility. It would be an excellent prac- 
tice to spread more manure on the heights, and leave the leveling 
of the field to cultivation and time, which will certainly effect it. 
He must be a bad farmer, who cannot water furrow his grounds so 
as to keep the hollows sufliciently dry. 

Where land is cheap and population thin, boggy and springy 
places should be sown in herdgrass and remain in it, even if it 
should spoil the looks of a field, or of every field on the farm. Profit 
ought to be the farmer's aim : therefore, it matters not how his 
fields look, if at the end of the year, the balance of his profit and 
loss account book looks well : particularly, as he has no cause to 
complain of the boggy or springy places, as they have furnished 
him with good hay, and no longer mire his cattle when pastured in 
the fields. Where land is high and labour plenty, the gentleman 
may sow such places with the same grass, and let them remain in 
it until he is well informed in the art of draining. Although we 
have some excellent writings on that subject in this country, it is 
far from being practically understood. As it is very difficult to 
cut off the springs judiciously without practical experience, a great 
deal of money may be readily spent in draining, to but very little 
purpose; particularly in under draining. Where the excess of 
moisture does not proceed from springs, this expense may be avoid- 



417 

jj, and the superfluous moisture more effectually run off", by a pro- 
per system of cultivation alone. 

When stumps are fast in the ground, removing them by grubbing, 
is very expensive, and should never be done. The screw invented 
in England for blowing them to pieces with gunpowder, may answer 
in that country where labour is cheap, and the wood may be advan- 
tageously used for fuel : provided the stump be sound ; for when it 
is otherwise, or cracked by the falling of the tree, or in any other 
way, the blast is commonly ineffectual. Stumps have been remov- 
ed in the eastern States, with great facility, by what is called here 
the Yankee lever. It is represented to be a simple piece of timber 
with canthooks so fixed in the middle of it as to grasp the stump, 
a powerful yoke of oxen is attached to each end of the lever, and 
these, by moving in contrary directions, it is said, and in a way 
that seems to leave no cause for doubt, quickly extracts the stump.* 
However, I advise the gentleman not to attempt even this mode of 
extracting stumps, unless he can procure workmen who are practi- 
cally acquainted with the business, and cattle that are calculated - 
to effect the purpose. When the roots have become sufficiently de- 
cayed for a pair of oxen to draw out the stump, by a log chain 
hitched around the upper part of it, a great many may be taken up 
in the course of one day, and with but very little expense. 

Blowing rocks which stand above the surface of the soil, is very 
expensive; especially if they do not split freely. Filling the holes 
with the earth around them, injures. the soil, and if earth and soil 
be hauled for this purpose, which seems to be the best way, it is ex- 
pensive. Although the plain practical farmers are in the practice, 
it is a doubtful one, for none but the wealthy encounter it, and the 
principal part of the labour is done at leisure times, by themselves 
and family : consequently, they neither feel nor estimate the expense : 
I therefore, advise the gentleman not to engage in it until he can ac- 
curately calculate the expense and compare it with the improve- 
ment. If this be done, it seems probable that he will not encounter 
this business until he becomes well acquainted with it, and can hire 
a blaster whom he knows to be expert ; otherwise much time and 
powder may be expended to but little purpose. He should also 
have some valuable use for the stone, or sell it to some person who 
will haul it off" the field, for even this alone is expensive. Surface 
stones must be removed, or the grounds cannot be mowed. Con- 
cealed stones near the surface of the soil, occasion tedious and bad 
ploughing, soon dull the irons, and sometimes break the plough: 
still the gentleman had better not commence the removal of them 
until he has been a year or two on the farm, for it requires well 
formed plans to effect even this without considerable useless ex- 
pense. The larger stones got in this way, and gathered from the 

• When the stump is large and very fast in the gi-ound, two pjxir of powerfo] 
oxen hitched to each end of the lever, do not seem to be too many, if enouj^li. 
provided the roots be sound. 

3G 



418 

surface, may be either sold or reserved for building, and the smaller 
ones applied to stop the washings which run into the gullies, or 
mend the roads, or may be reserved for under draining, or hauled 
into the quarries. 

"When a fence is run between the woods and the fields, the prac- 
tice of cutting off" the communication of the roots of the trees, with 
the cleared grounds, is attended with but little extra expense where 
timber is valuable. The bank and ditch save two rails in each 
pannel, also something in the length of the post, and the ro^jts of 
the trees exhaust the field and injure the crops. But after some 
time, the roots grow downward a little within the surface of the 
soil, and cross the bottom of it, and mounting upward, find their 
way into the field without being seen. However, by cutting them 
off" occasionally on each side of the bottom of the ditch, they may be 
prevented from doing any very serious injury to the field. In do- 
ing this, care should be taken not to make the ditch any deeper 
than it was at first. It has been observed that the roots of trees 
cross very deep gullies in the same way as they cross the ditches : 
therefore, no good, but much evil will arise from making the ditches 
deeper, every time it becomes necessary to cut off" the roots in the 
bottom of them. 

The late plentiful introduction of merino sheep, will terminate 
as a very great advantage to this country; provided this animal be 
not despised and neglected, because its valuable properties fall so 
very far short of realizing the golden dreams of infatuated specula- 
tors. Their compact form and close pile of wool, or some other 
cause or causes render them, or even a mixed breed with them and 
the common sheep of the country, much hardier than the latter. 
They will thrive on the same food and usage that common sheep 
fall away on; are more readily fattened, and much less subject to 
disease. Their wool also sells at a much higher price. Still, com- 
mon sense dictates, that the price of them must ultimately terminate 
in the value of the materials of which they are composed. This 
might have been as clearly' seen before the ill judged speculation in 
these animals took place, as at the present or any future time. Yet 
if they had actually possessed the golden fleece jirefigured to us on 
signposts, or some other properties equally productive, more could 
have scarcely been said of their value ; or more industriously pro- 
pagated in almost every possible way, by interested speculators; 
or by gentlemen whose imapnations were as highly inflamed by the 
enthusiastic dreams of profit, as was those who ran crazy when the 
mama for the bank-scrip prevailed. Formerly, large animals were 
th«: object of speculation. Now, form, bone and a disposition to 
fat'«'n freely, take the lead. The latter seems to have reason on 
its side ; aiui it may be readily effected by judicious mixtures of the 
vanoiis forms and properties so very conspicuous in dift'erent ani- 
maiv ft' the same kind ; and no question but the value of every kind 
ma\ be greatly enhanced in this way. It is, however, doubtful 
whether the ingenuity of the cattle jockies will permit this improve- 



419 

ment to remain permanent. They are like barbers, milliners and 
many others, whose profit principally depends on the alteration of 
fashion, and where customers but too generally find every possible 
convenience attached to the latest. 

The cattle jockey when the market is full of the best and most 
approved breeds, will be compelled to receive a moderate profit, 
or like the keen sportsman start fresh game. The latter accords 
much better with the exorbitant profit attached to his business ; 
therefore new game will be started, and if we may judge fioni the 
past of what is yet to come, it is to be feared that by far too many 
gentlemen farmers will follow the chase, with as much avidity as 
the gay world follow the fashion of the day. It should, however, 
be recollected that a gentleman farmer does not possess the qualifi- 
cations of a cattle jockey. If he weie well acquainted with these 
qualifications, it is presumed he would despise them too much to 
put them in practice ; consequently stocking his farm with domes- 
ticated animals at exorbitant prices would be ruinous to him. The 
real value of these animals is no further increased, than the extra, 
profit arising from the different improvements that had been actu- 
ally made in them, which will be finally determined at the butcher's 
market, &c. This will be found scarcely worthy of consideration, 
when contrasted with the immense prices at which they are sold, 
while they continue the objects of an infatuated speculation : still 
if the gentleman be rich, he may promote the interest of agriculture 
by a moderate introduction of improved animals, without any seri- 
ous injury to himself. 

It is certain that the rage for gentleman farming in England, has 
introduced many valuable improvements, but it is equally certain, 
that the immense wealth possessed by some of those gentlemen, 
together with a general emulation to excel, have induced many of 
them to introduce expensive practices, which are better calculated 
to ruin farmers, whose income depended on the proper manage- 
ment of their farms, than to promote their interest. 

Bookmaking is a trade well understood in England. The opu- 
lent are the best customers, and the patronage of some of them is 
highly important. To secure these advantages they must be pleased. 
This is ditficult unless their bad as well as good practices be equally 
recommended. Another source of extensive error is opened, when 
wealth, talents, or zeal improperly directed, happens to obtain too 
much influence in agricultural societies, as the act of publication 
stamps intrinsic value on error ; for the reader is naturally induced 
to believe, that the subject, after being duly investigated, has ob- 
tained the approbation of the society, or it would not have been 
published by it 

There is no practice so bad but it may, and too often is, advo- 
cated, even by mj^n of talents. Horseracing has been long, and too 
Successfully patronised bv those who are fond of the sport. I'hey 
urge that the practice promotes emulation, and that this is the best 
means that can be devised to insure the improvement of that noble 



420 

and very useful animal. However, the collected wisdom of our 
State, has justly considered this practice very injurious, and has 
endeavoured to suppress it by heavy fines and penalties. 

The same arguments are used in favour of plough races, cattle 
shows, and sheep shearings. They are published with the same 
eclat that horseraces commonly are, and pretty much in the same 
style. 

The pedigree of the animal is traced back so far as they can ob- 
tain any credit from their ancestry. After this, as is the practice 
in prudent families, genealogy ceases. It should be recollected, 
however, that the evils arising from these practices, are equally, if 
not more injurious than horseracing. The emulation to excel, in- 
duces many to pay for a single animal, more money than would pur- 
chase all the live stock necessary for a valuable farm. If this prac- 
tice were confined to gentlemen possessing immense estates, the 
evil, although the example is very injurious to the economy of farm- 
ing, would not be so great, but gentlemen of very limited fortunes 
too often possess equal ambition of this sort with the great, and are 
frequently ruined, or sadly injured, by these inconsiderate prac- 
tices; while the plain practical farmers, although some of them pos- 
sess more wealth, wisely avoid these ruinous speculations, unless 
they commence the business of a cattle jockey, which too many of 
them have done, especially in England, for the express purpose of 
enriching themselves and families, by preying on the ignorance and 
folly of gentlemen farmers. Although this class of people are 
considered stupid and ignorant, by too many of the learned writers 
on husbandry, they have proved the contrary, as the exercise of 
their talents and wit in this disgraceful business has enabled some 
of them to accumulate considerable estates. 

This puts me in mind of once enquiring pf the keeper of a toll 
j^ate, whether he knew of any store cattle for sale in his neighbour- 
hood. He said he did not, but pointing to a farmer standing by, 
observed that this man dealt in cattle. The stranger said he was 
very sorry that he had none at this time for sale, as he always pre- 
ferred dealing with gentleman farmers. This was accompanied with 
a smile so expressive of what he thought, that it appeared useless to 
inquire the cause of this marked preference. 

Gentlemen who are fond of associating with, or entertaining large 
mixed companies, might readily do this without connecting the folly 
or expense with the economy of farming; this, instead of promo- 
ting agriculture, is exactly calculated to prejudice the minds of 
tliose against it, whose pleasure consists in a circumscribed circle 
of friends. 

It will be very natural for them to conclude, that the whole amount 
of wool commoidy obtained at a sheep shearing would not defray 
the expense of the entertainment, which, without the addition of 
this serious evil, would be disagreeable to them, as tliey must ne- 
cessarily entertain numbers with whom they would not wish to 
associate. 



421 

The admirers of agriculture should not injure its simple but lovely 
and necessary economy, by connecting useless, injurious, and ex- 
pensive practices with it. f therefore advise those who cannot be 
hap[)y, unless they spend a portion of their time and money in 
sportive gratifications, to resume their racehorses, hunters, grooms, 
huntsmen and hounds. In this case the injury done by breaking 
fences, trampling grain fields, &c. will be of but trivial import when 
compared with the expensive agricultural practices introduced by 
them ; this is not all, their pleasure will be greatly promoted by 
the change, for the beautiful figure of an Arabian or a hunter infi- 
nitely surpasses that of the most highly improved bull, ox, or sheep; 
and the bleating of sheep, lowing of cows, bellowing of bulls, or 
grunting of hogs is still further surpassed, by the infatuating har- 
mony of the huntsman's horn, and a good pack of dogs in full cry. 

The race between lubberly plough norses or sluggish oxen, espe- 
cially when hitched to a plough, bears so little resemblance to that 
between animals well calculated for and trained to this exercise, 
that it seems to be useless to contrast them. The former is better 
calculated to exercise the patience, than to promote the pleasure of 
the spectators; and this the plain practical farmer knows full well, 
especially when unfavourable weather, or any other cause, induces 
him to hurry in his seed. 

Reading is highly important to the gentleman farmer, for it must 
be a worthless book indeed, from which nothing important can be 
gathered. It should, however, be recollected, that it requires prac- 
tical information to enable him to separate the chaff from the 
wheat. This is best obtained by observing the practice of plain 
practical farmers, and conversing freely with them. Although 
their too general prejudice against books on agriculture has greatly 
retarded their progress in improvement, many of them possess 
strong minds, and have acquired much information from practice, 
united with attentive observation. 

It is also evident that the same may be said of farmers in gene- 
ral as of books. He must be a bad one indeed from whom no useful 
information can be obtained. It sometimes happens that even the 
short cuts which slovens take to avoid labour, introduce the best 
practice that can be pursued ; the gentleman, however, should al- 
ways keep in view, that his intercourse with plain practical farmers 
is to gain, and not to give information. If this be done, he will 
find them obliging and ready to communicate ; but if, like too many, 
he forgets his errand, and talks of what he has done or intends to 
do, or should he presume to recommend his own practices to them, 
they will soon see that the gentleman has either overlooked the 
business he designed to accomplish, or suspect that he came for the 
express purpose of instructing them. The latter will be considered 
useless, for they have too often witnessed the blunders of gentlemen 
farmers to be instructed by them. If the gentleman's management 
be rational and judicious, the silent display of his crops will even- 
tually gain the respect and esteem so justly due to unassuming 



422 

merit, and the plain practical farmer will the more cheerfully adopt 
his better practice ; and if death or any other cause should remove 
him from the neighbourhood, his absence will be regretted, and his 
memory respected. His labourers will respect his talents and 
prudence, and cheerfully submit to be directed by him. For even 
this class of men are not so stupid or obstinate as too many have 
represented them to be ; their pointed observations and shrewd re- 
marks on the blunders of gentlemen farmers, clearly determine that 
they are not deficient in native talents. It is, however, to be la- 
mented, that these blunders too often excite inveterate prejudice, 
which induces them to be opposed even to good practices that ihey 
do not happen to understand. Yet it should be recollected that the 
learned are not always exempt from this evil, or the obstinate pride 
which induces too many to persist in error long after their judg- 
ment ought to have been convinced. 

A description of an immense number of agricultural tools and 
implements, with engravings of them ; together with explanations 
of their important usefulness, and the proper way of forming and 
using them, form too great a portion of too many books on agri- 
culture. This may be useful to printers, bookbinders, and engra- 
vers, but is exactly calculated to injure gentlemen farmers, who 
are not yet taught to discriminate, especially as many of these 
tools and implements are complicated, expensive and difficult to 
be used by those who are not intimately acquainted with them ; 
and by far the greater part of them are useless, or much surpassed 
by the cheap and simple instruments and implements in general 
use. This is not all, for many of them have been found very ex- 
pensive and injurious to the interest of those that have tried them ; 
although the recommendation of them has been backed by flatter- 
ing calculation, and pompous promises of the immense sums of 
money which might be saved by the introduction of them. It is 
true those calculations have been formed on erroneous principles, 
but it is also true that a gentleman farmer in the commencement 
of his business cannot readily detect the error. In fact, too many 
of those books are better calculated to lead him into error than do 
him any good, especially as it may be justly considered as a maxim 
in farming, that in general the most simple and cheap instruments 
and implements are by far the best. However, the gentleman too 
frequently thinks otherwise; hence it is that if you happen to visit 
a gentleman's farm which has been some years in operation, you 
will but too frequently see as many useless implements and uten- 
sils lying about in every direction, as would induce a poor man to 
consider himself rich, if he only possessed half the money which 
they had cost the owner. 

Having finished my remarks on the gentleman's extensive, and 
very expensive preparations for the accommodation of his family, 
and also for farming, I will in the next chapter examine his manage- 
ment and practice in husbandry. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

The delusive expectation of rural enjoyments considei'ed. Observations on the 
erroneous calculations of profit arising from sending fruit, vegetables, &c. to 
market. The value of maize contrasted with that of potatoes and other 
roots. The means by which the gentleman may soonest and best become 
acquainted with practical husbandly. 

Although the gentleman seldom intends to remove to the farm 
until his buildings are so far finished as to afford a comfortable 
residence for his family, it often happens, that a desire to counteract 
the wanton waste and idleness going on there, or an impatience to 
commence the enjoyment of a rural life, induces him to remove 
sooner. 

It is true, the house which had been too hastily condemned, 
would have acconnnodated his family infinitely better. It, however, 
happens in this case as it does in most other cases, 

"Man never is but always to be blest." 

The gentleman believes that after his buildings are completed all 
the calm, consoling enjoyments of rural felicity will ensue. Yet 
he might have been better informed, for he must liave known that 
thousands who had tried those fancied enjoyments from their cra- 
dles were continually leaving the country, and flocking into our 
cities and towns, with as much avidity as if happiness were no 
where else to be found. 

This phantom eludes the grasp of all those who do not wisely 
enjoy the present moment as it flows along, without regretting the 
past, or brooding oyer what is yet to come. However, it so hap- 
pens, that the gentleman thinks otherwise; and he cheerfully sub- 
mits, for at least twelve months yet to come, to subject himself and 
family to the trifling inconvenience of being barricaded with vast 
quantities of materials necessary for finishing the buildings. These 
being heaped up around the castle render the entrance to it inac- 
cessible, except by confined roads, which are all but impassable, 
having been completely cut up and filled with slough by the inces- 
sant intercourse of heavy laden teams. To this we may add the 
perpetual din and clatter of axes, saws, files, planes, hammers, ami 
noisy workmen; together with the suftbcating dust arising from the 
lime, or the sweeping out of the unfinished rooms in which the me- 
chanics are working; also, inhaling the very disagreeable and un- 
healthy efiiuvia from newly painted rooms, glue pots, &c. ; together 
with being kept in perpetual alarm for the safety of the children; 
they are sometimes found bemired in the sloughs or beds of mor- 
tar; or at other times they are seen playing under the scaffolds on 



424 

which the men are at work, or round the unfinished doorways that 
lead into the cellars, or caught heedlessly walking on a single joist 
or board, with destruction yawning beneath them. One year, how- 
ever, of perpetual vexation may be considered but of little moment 
in the life of man when he has future happiness in view.' We 
read that Jacob, although he was baffled and sadly cheated, cheer- 
fully served fourteen years for Rachel. Yet, if he may be believed, 
he had not been happy, for he tells Pharaoh that " few and evil 
have the days of the years of my life been." It is true, that not- 
withstanding this high authority, a very considerable allowance 
should be made for old men after they are no longer capable of 
participating freely in many of the rational pleasures which, in 
their full extent seem to be the exclusive privilege of youth and 
maturity, are very apt greatly to underrate the sum total of human 
felicity. 

Before I proceed further, it may be proper to inform the reader 
that in attempting to describe gentleman farming, it is not to be 
expected that all the injurious practices which ought to be exposed 
are adopted by each one of them: on the contrary, their views and 
practices are as different as the opinions of the different authors 
they may happen to read; and, although I have not seen it, some 
of them may have proceeded in their business judiciously and pro- 
fitably from the commencement of it. Neither is it to be expected 
that my observation aad memory can embrace the whole of the 
various causes which operate against gentleman farming. How- 
ever, I hope enough will be advanced on this very interesting sub- 
ject to enable the gentleman to proceed safely and profitably in 
his agricultural pursuits; also, to convince the impartial reader, 
that if gentlemen do not succeed in agriculture, it is because they 
do not practice the strict economy and personal attention which, 
from the nature of their business and the independent situation of 
the labouring part of the community in Pennsylvania, are actually 
necessary: this independence is justly the pride and boast of every 
State in the Union where slavery is abolished : especially as an in- 
creased population will in a great measure remove the partial evil 
arising from it; still it must be confessed that at present it makes 
greatly against gentleman farming. As the demand for labour is 
such, that, if the farmer knows the person who offers to hire has 
behaved badly in the employment of his neighbour, the suffering 
situation of his crops, or some other pressing cause, seems to com- 
pel him to employ the man, although he has little but trouble and 
perplexity to expect, and perhaps abusive language into the bargain. 

Gentlemen too often make large calculations of the money that 
may be made by sending vegetables, fruit, butter, cheese, &c. to 
market. They have observed these things command high prices: 
especially when they consist of an early supply of such articles as 
the seasons with good management produce. Also, that many 
living in the vicinity of cities had from small beginnings amassed 
( onsiderable estates in this way. This too often induces gentle- 



425 

men to make very expensive preparations for maketing. They 
considerably increase the size of their gardens, hotbeds, Ike; also, 
milk house, ice house, &c. : likewise, plant an immense number of 
fruit trees, bushes, &c. that nothing may be wanting which is 
likely to insure success. 

But, unfortunately, he does pot consider that the people who got 
rich in this way go with these articles to market themselves. 
They are acquainted with the business, and if any thing is left 
after the usual hour for sale, they know the huckster it will suit, 
and how to obtain the best price for it. So soon as the farmer's 
market is finished he returns honie to his business without any de- 
Jay. During his absence his wife and his children are busily em- 
ployed, some in the gardens and others in the field ; and their pre- 
sence and example keep his labourers at work while he is from 
home: such management as this will make a man thrive in any 
business that is worth following. 

The gentleman is very differently situated: he neither obtains 
nor wishes the menial assistance of his family. Neither will he, 
Mor should he, go to market himself: consequently every thing is 
hired, even to the gathering of the fruit, potherbs, 4>:c. and tying the 
latter up in bunches fit for sale: therefore, the whole of it, from 
first to last, is exactly calculated to promote idleness, chicanery 
and fraud. However, it Appears that the gentlemen knows nothing 
of this ; and so soon as the fruit trees, bushes, &c. found on the 
place, together with his gardens and fields, afford a sufficient va- 
riety to make a beginning, h1^ goldc i project is commenced. A 
well turned pair of horse:-, with a light covered waggon and a neat 
set of harness is purchased. He hires a man who he is told is 
■well calculated to drive the waggon, and sell what may be sent by 
him to market. Being now, as he. believes, completely fi-xed, a 
well assorted load is ordered, and that the man should start early 
the ensuing morning. This finds employment for the market-man 
and several other labourers the whole of the afternoon; for after 
the vegetables, fruit, &c. have been gathered, they must be pro- 
perly fixed for sale, and the people take care not to hurry them- 
selves in this tedious employment. In fact the gathering and fixing 
alone, too often costs the gentleman more money than he receives 
for the whole load. As he has not been accustomed to rise early, 
and removed to the country for the express purpose of enjoying 
ease and repose, he depends on his head man or farmer, and the 
latter too generally suffers the sun to shine for some time through 
the windows on his bed, before himself or any other person on the 
farm, thinks of rising: consequently by the time the gentleman's 
market-man has got cleverly fixed in market, the industrious com- 
mon farmer, who had started from home long before day, is gearing 
up to return. Of course, the gentleman's load, although it may be 
well assorted, hangs heavy on hand. This is soon observed by 
some keen huckster, who, at a proper time, makes a bid for the 
whole. As it is now too late, and no purchaser had for a long time 

3H 



426 

appeared, and nothing better is likely to offer, the bargain is closed, 
and the market-man starts for the farm. The gentleman is asto- 
nished when he sums up the scanty returns; but the market-man 
fives several ingenious reasons why it so happened, taking care to 
eep the real cause out of sight ; and, as he rises earlier the ensuing 
trip, his returns are better, though very far below his employer's 
expectations. Thus the business generally goes on, sometimes 
better and sometimes worse. But, unfortunately, especially for 
gentleman farmers, the roads near our large towns are crowded 
with grog or dram shops. Still» although the gentleman's market- 
man may be sorely tempted by Satan, or his own propensities, he 
neither likes to disgrace the recommendation he has so recently 
obtained, nor to lose a very easy birth. He, therefore, commonly 
resolutely passes by the whole of these, for some few days at least. 
However, habit, joined with the importunity of his old potcom- 
panions, too soon shake his resolution. 

In this case, the horses are generally left standing at the door. 
As the driver commonly becomes forgetful of them, hunger may at 
length induce them to move off; and it may happen to the gentle- 
man as it once did to myself. However, happen what may, nothing 
good is to be expected when his market-man gets drunk. 

My light waggon, loaded with potatoes, started in the morning be- 
fore it was light, as the driver had six miles to go before he reached 
the market. It had frequently happened that those sent before did 
not return back until some time after it was dark; although the in- 
dustrious farmers in my neighbourhoood, who drove their own teams 
to the same market, commonly returned about the middle of the 
day. The man now sent, did not return until twelve o'clock in the 
night, and then informed me he had stopped at a friend's house on 
the road, and that the horses had run off with the waggon, and he 
could neither find nor hear any thing of it. All the men on the farm, 
were immediately mounted and sent off in different directions, but 
the team was not found till the fore part of the ensuing day. They 
liad taken a road which slanted off from the farm, and hitched 
one of the wheels fast to a tree growing on one side of it. As they 
remained quietly in this situation, no damage but the loss of one 
spoke occurred. However, as the horses were valuable, and the 
waggon had been little used, a serious loss was expected by me. 

This, with many other perplexing circumstances, actuallj' com- 
pelled me to abandon the practice of growing the potatoes as a mix- 
ed crop with maize, although they were by far more profitable for 
this purpose, than any other plant known to me, if any rational 
mode of selling them could have been devised. But I must either 
let them rot on my hands, or be subjected to perpetual inquietude, 
and insupportable^ inipositions, by sending them to market. The 
man who lost my waggon and horses, was five years in my employ- 
ment, and the best workman 1 have ever had. He was too fond of 
spiritous liqaors ; still, he seldom drank to excess on the farm, and 
was active, ingenuous and very obliging. Many others, however, 



427 

were tried both before and after this accident, and I can truly say 
that I never met with one, that was even tolerably well qualified 
for a market-man. Some were too ignorant ; others were idle and 
negligent; many would get drunk, and from the scanty return 
which but too frequently happened, there was reason to suspect that 
many of them were far from being honest. 

The gentleman farmer should studiously avoid every practice 
that would compel him to depend on the talents, sobriety, honesty 
or industry of his people when sent off the farm : consequently, his 
crops should consist of such articles as could be either profitably 
consumed on it, or sold at once by himself to the merchant or miller. 
The latter often keeps teams, and will commonly con tract for de- 
livery at the farm. When the merchant is the purchaser, the gen- 
tleman may generally get some honest waggoner in his neighbour- 
hood to haul the article, and bring receipts back for each load. 
Butchers, in plenty, will call to purchase and drive off the live 
stock he may fatten for sale. 

His hay and straw ought to be consumed on the farm, which will 
^ave him the endless perplexity of sending these articles to market) 
and hauling back dung in return. By this mode of management, 
fewer horses and working cattle will suffice, and being under his 
own eye, they v>ill be much less subjected to abuse and injury. His 
■waggons and carts may be lighter constructed, the better to suit 
the business of the farm. 

One horse carts are now fashionable on a farm; but after the 
rage for novelty has subsided, it will be found that a judicious mix- 
ture of carts drawn by two horses, and waggons, will be far better: 
especially in this country, where the wages for drivers come high, 
for although one man may drive several carts on plain or turnpike 
roads, this cannot be advantageously done on a farm.* 

The products of agriculture" have been greatly increased in Great 
Britain, by attention to grass, roots, &c. and also to manuring and 
cultivating the soil. But too many in this country have raistakea 
the cause of this improvement, and attributed it to the advantages 
derived from preparing an abundance of juicy food for their cattle 
and sheep, by an extensive growth of the roots used for this pur- 
pose. This has induced some of our best writers on agriculture, 
highly to recommend an extensive growth ot these roots; and also 
to cook them for the cattle. They have enforced this advice by 
elaborate calculation, of the immense advantages to be derived from 
this practice. This has induced too many gentlemen farmers to 
adopt the plan in the commencement of their business. 

The labourers in this country have been accustomed to cultivate 

♦ I have never tried the practice, but am very much disposed to believe, that 
the expense of waggons may be saved on a firm of a moderate size, and the 
work more expeditiously done by carts dra\rn by two horses : provided the 
ladders for hauling the hay and grain be so Ixed as to cany as much of ei- 
ther, as the horses can draw, without dangef of the cart being readily over- 
set by the height of the load. i 



428 

potatoes, therefore, the gentleman finds no difficulty in obtaining 
considerable quantities of them. As most of our workmen have as- 
sisted in cultivating cabbage, in gardens, tliej will the more readilj 
submit to the tedious employment of setting them out in fields, and 
the gentleman's gardener may cultivate the plants. But, notwith- 
standing our labourers have been accustomed to sow and gather 
turnips on a very contracted scale, they know nothing of hoeing 
them, and too generally consider it useless, therefore seldom at- 
tempt to improve. As turnips are commonly gathered when the 
leaves are frozen or covered with frost, there is no business done on 
a farm, that requires more patience and fortitude than pulling and 
topping them. It, therefore, seems almost impossible to get an ex- 
tensive growth of them properly secured. If they be pulled early, 
and the weather continues warm, fermentation destroys them. Add- 
ed to this, the depredations of the fly render them the most pre- 
carious crop that is grown by us. 

The cultivation of carrots is still more opposed by the labourers 
in this country. They come up very spindling, and are not readily 
distinguished from the weeds, while the plants are young, unless 
the labourer assumes a kneeling, or a squatting posture. However, 
the gentleman knows nothing of these difficulties, and it seems rea- 
sonable to believe, that if men be well paid for their labour, no diffi- 
culty ought to arise from putting them a little out of their usual way : 
especially, as it will increase their knowledge, and the gentleman 
wishes to improve the agriculture of the country. It is, however, 
a well known fact, that even in countries where an increased popu- 
lation and other causes seem to compel the labourer to be more 
subservient to the will of his employer, it is often found difficult to in- 
troduce new practices in husbandry, in consequence of the opposition 
made by those employed in the execution of the work. As the la-^ 
bourers in this country are very independent, the gentleman too 
generally finds his workmen quite as much, or perhaps more, dis- 
posed to wage war against the turnips and carrots, than against the 
weeds infesting them: particularly, as they believe, it is his igno- 
rance of farming that induces him to impose this supposed useless, 
and at the same time, very disagreeable business on them. 

Here it may be asked, are we to permit the inconsiderate preju- 
dices of labourers to exclude improvement.'^ Certainly not, but 
can it be jjrudent for a gentleman who does not know how to in- 
struct them, to introduce practices entirely opposed to the habits 
of his workmen ; especially, on an extensive scale : when, if he was 
intimately acquainted with the business, and capable of teaching 
them, and they vvcre willing to be instructed, he would find, that 
one man who understood hoeing and setting out turnips and car- 
rots, at proper distances apart, would not only do the work in- 
finitely better, but also get through, in the same space of time, as 
much of it as two or three nen who had no practical knowledge of 
the business. This differer.ce in the expense of cultivation alone, 
is certainly sufficient to preveat th^ profitable cultivation of those 



429 

roots; as well as of the parsnip and beet, except on a very limited 
scale, to be regularly extended, provided they should be found as 
profitable as they have been represented to be. 

My cultivation of the turnip has ever been a limited one, and 
they have always been hoed. This has never failed to be a very 
tedious, and of course, an expensive job. When finished in the 
best way that I could get it done, many plants were left standing 
that ought to have been removed, and numbers cut oft" which should 
have been suffered to remain. Notwithstanding, I have never had 
quite two acres of this root cultivated at any one time, and com- 
monly sow earlier than my neighbours, (as I do not believe, as too 
many do, that frost makes this or any other plant, grow better,) I 
have ever found it difficult to get them pulled, topped and pro- 
perly secured in due time. Once an unexpected hard frost made 
it necessary to dig up a considerable proportion of them, with the 
hoe, and to form shelters to keep off the piercing notherly winds 
from those employed in topping them. 

Use and observation alone, seem to determine that the potatoe 
is the most nutritive root known to us. This is confirmed by the 
chemical experiments made and quoted by Sir H. Davy ; he says, 
'• the potato is the bulb that contains the largest quantity of solu- 
ble matter in its cells and vessels ; and it is of most importance in 
its application as food."* Use and observation, seem clearly to 
determine, that the common turnip is not one-half so nutritive as 
the potato, and Sir H. D.'s experiments rate them much lower 
than this ; for although he estimates the nutritive matter in the 
Swedish turnip, about fifty per cent, higher than in the common 
turnip, the former does not appear from his statements, to possess 
but little more than one-quarter as much nutritive matter as the 
potato. The nutritive matter contained in the carrot and parsnip, 
he rates at less than one-half, and that in the beet, at about two- 
thirds as much as is found in the potato ; and the cabbage con- 
tains something more than one-quarter as much nutritive matter as 
the potato.t 
. This gentleman remarks, that " it is probable that the excellence 
of the different articles as food, will be found to be, in a great mea- 
sure, proportional to the qualities of the soluble or nutritive matters 
they afford ; but still, these qualities cannot be regarded as abso- 
lutely denoting their value. Albuminous or glutinous matters 
have the characters of animal substances; sugar is more nourishing, 
and extract matter less nourishing. Certain combinations likewise 
of these substances, may be more nutritive than others. "^: 

This is certainly a very interesting subject. It therefore ought 
to be diligently investigated in every possible way. We should not 
be discouraged, although we have yet much to learn. The marked 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 139. •jj- Idem, pag'c 150. 

* Idem, from page 138 to paj^e 152. 



430 

difference in the excrementitious matter from tlifterent animals 
which have been fed on the same provision, determines that their food 
has been very differently elaborated ; consequently it is reasonable 
to suppose that the different nutritive matters contained in the food 
are more profitably applied by some, than they are by other animals. 
This fact seems to be established by practice. As the ox ruminates, 
he obtains a better support from dry straw than the horse. The 
dung of an ox shows, that the woody fibre of the straw has been 
finely divided by him. It also seems as if less of this fibre remain- 
ed, than is found in the dung of the horse. But as there are many 
animals who neither ruminate, or even masticate their food, who 
possess the power of digesting very hard substances, there can be 
but little doubt that some of the nutritive matters contained in the 
food commonly given to domesticated animals, is far more andvatage- 
ously elaborated by some of them than it is by others, whether they 
may or may not ruminate. Still, on the whole, there is every rea- 
son to believe with Sir H. Davy, that " the potato is the bulb that 
contains tbe largest quantity of soluble matter in its cells and ves- 
sels, and that it is of most importance in its application as food." 

This being the case, the gentleman will act wisely, if he confines 
his cultivation of roots principally to the potato. On the whole, 
he will find it most profitable, and his workmen are acquainted 
with it.* But this plant, if the product be consumed on the farm, 
is greately inferior to maize. Yet Mr. Bordley, in his book on 
Agriculture, promises to the nation a saving of 1,600,000 dollars 
yearly, and also the use of 1,412,000 acres of land, which might be 
applied to some other use, if hogs were fattened on potatoes, witk 
a dusting, (as he terms it,} of Indian meal. 

He says it would require seventeen bushels of potatoes, and 
seven- tenths of a bushel of Indian meal, to fatten a hog weighing 
one hundred and sixty pounds, and that seven and a half bushels 
of corn would do the same. He allows ten acres of ground to grow 
seventeen hundred bushels of potatoes, and four and seven-eighths 
acres to grow the corn to dust them. The produce arising from 
those fourteen and seven eighths acres, he considers sufficient-to 
fatten one hundred hogs of a hundred and sixty pounds each; and 
that it would require fifty acres of ground to grow seven hundred 
and fifty bushels of corn, which he allows would be enough to fat- 
ten the same number and weight of hogs. 

He estimates the cultivation of the maize at five dollars per 
acre. This may not be far underrated, as the produce is only fifteen 
bushels to the acre ; for a soil capable of producing no more corn 
than this, would not be likely to trouble the cultivator with a mul- 
tiplicity of weeds ; and the expense of gathering so light a crop, 
must be inconsiderable. He rates the whole expense of cultivating 
the potatoes, which observe, he says, should be manured at thirty- 

* No crop IS more certain than potatoes ; other roots are precarious ; so are 
c&bbajjes. The seasons for planting them iure often very unfavourable. 



431 

six dollars and sixty cents. This sum would not cover near the 
expense of manuring, and cultivating one acre alone. It would 
not pay for hauling and spreading the manure, if the distance from 
the cattle yard to the field, was only moderate. If Mr. Bordley's 
estimate of the value of dung made on a farm, be admitted, it would 
not pay for a sufficiency to manure one acre and a half, without 
charging any thing for hauling and spreading it. 

If the manure were purchased and hauled from some town near 
the farm, it would not pay for manuring one acre alone. It would 
not purchase half the seed, unless potatoes were a drug, and would 
fall greatly short of paying for ploughing, harrowing, cutting and 
planting the seed, and keeping the crop free from weeds. With 
very good management, this trivial sum might pay half the expanse 
of ploughing out, gathering, and securing the crop. Such random 
calculations are only fitted to mislead the gentleman farmer in the 
commencement of his business. If seventeen hundred bushels of 
potatoes were to be realized for thirty-six dollars and sixty cents, 
they would cost the farmer but a fraction more than two cents per 
bushel, and the rent of the soil. Although the gentleman knows 
nothing of farming, his previous habits have taught him the value 
of calculation. Therefore it is not to be wondered at, if he should 
determine to grow large quantities of potatoes, and erect the steam- 
ing kettles, tubs, and washing machine recommended by Mr. Bord- 
ley ; also buy many hogs, and sink a large sum of money before he 
is better informed. 

But to return. When the valuations of crops are compared, they 
should be placed on equal footing. If this had been done, ten acres 
manured as is commonly done by good thrifty farmers for a potato 
crop, would have been found fully sufficient to grow seven hundred 
and fifty bushels of corn. This simple, but obviously just method 
of estimating the comparative value of crops, clearly demonstrates 
a very considerable balance in favour of maize, when the estimate 
is made in the way or mode pursued by Mr. Bordley. Even admit- 
ting that seventeen bushels of potatoes dusted with seven-tenths of 
a bushel of Indian meal, is equally as nutritive as seven and a half 
bushels of corn, than which nothing can be more erroneous. Al- 
though it will not require more than one acre of ground, if it be ma- 
nured, to grow the corn for the dusting meal, still that acre will 
furnish seventy -five bushels, which agreeably to Mr. Bordley's esti- 
mate will fatten ten hogs. The fodder from ten acres of corn that 
produces seventy-five bushels to the acre, if estimated no higher 
than was obtained from maize grown by me which produced only 
sixty-six bushels of shelled corn per acre, would be full thirteen 
tons ; this at the reduced price of eight dollars per ton, amounts to 
one hundred and four dollars, which sum agreeably to Mr. Bordley's 
estimate of the corn at fifty cents per bushel, would purchase a 
sufficiency to fatten twenty-seven hogs. 

Yet this gentleman makes no estimate of that grown on the fifty 
acres of maize introduced by him, although he must be well ac 



432 

quaintcd with the great value of it, as himself, and the rest of my 
countrymen and neighbours on the eastern shore of Maryland, 
found the leaves, or the blades as we called them, of this plant, ex- 
cellent fodder for our horses, and the husks and tops quite as good 
for our cows, and other horned cattle. But notwithstanding the 
immense numbers of impoverished and starved acres of corn grown 
in that country, too much straw is allotted to the half famished 
cattle there, as well as by too many inconsiderate farmers in Penn- 
sylvania. But to proceed ; the average price of potatoes, taking 
one year with another, seems to be about fifty cents per bushel. It 
requires about twenty-five bushels of full sized marketable potatoes 
to plant one acre properly. It is true, small, or what are commonly 
called planting potatoes, are generally used, and as these will not 
sell for culinary purposes, they may be generally bought at half, or 
less than half price, but as the cultivator loses much more than he 
gains by planting inferior seed, that article should be rated at not 
less than thirty-seven and a half cents per bushel, or nine dollars 
thirty -seven and a half cents per acre ; from this deduct seventy- 
five cents for seed corn per acre ; this leaves eight dollars, sixty- 
two and a half cents, which on ten acres amount to eighty-six dol- 
lars, twenty-five cents, and agreeably to Mr. Bordley's calcula- 
tion is equal to fattening twenty-three hogs. 

The expense of a manured crop of corn, if it be not less, cannot 
well be more, than the expense of a potato crop. The manure, 
rent, and preparation of the soil of both crops may be considered 
equal. The cutting and planting of the seed, with the cultivation 
after planting the potato crop, when united, will cost full as much, 
if not more, than planting and cultivating the maize. The latter 
may be husked and cribbed for the same money as will take a po- 
tato crop out of the ground, and secure it properly. It is true, the 
saving of the corn fodder in the most economical way will cost from 
two dollars to two dollars and a half per acre, but this has been ra- 
ted at a low price, particularly as some farmers, whose cattle have 
been accustomed to it, prefer it to hay, even for their milch cows, 
and no estimate has been made of the value of the stalks for litter, 
and they are fully equal to the expense of gathering the foddjer, as 
they weigh rather more than it, whereas the litter obtained from the 
potato vine, if the crop is not gathered until it be fully ripe, is of 
but little comparative value. 

Thus, agreeably to Mr. Bordley's own estimates, (except the 
value of the seed for planting the potato crop, which he certainly 
rates far too low,) a crop of maize, if that plant be fairly treated, 
is sixty per cent, better than a crop of potatoes, even if seventeen 
bushels of the latter when steamed, and dusted with seven-tenths of 
a bushel of Indian meal, were equal to seven and a half bushels 
of corn. It should be remembered that, although steaming the po- 
tatoes brings much more of the nutriment contained in them into 
effectual use, that soaking or boiling the corn produces the same 
useful effect, with much less labour and expense. 



433 

No question but the reader will agree with me that hogs fattened 
on potatoes are vastly inferior to those fattened on maize; also, 
that the necessary conveniences for washing and steaming the po- 
tatoes, together with the labour and fuel, will cost a great deal of 
money, for the article is bulky, and must be first removed to the 
washing machine, and from thence into the steaming kettle, and af- 
ter this again removed and carried to the cattle ; yet these very 
serious expences form no part of Mr. Bo'dley's estimate.* 

However, the foregoing observations on this gentleman's calcula- 
tions h;,ve been made, merely to show, that if Indian corn be treated 
fairly, it is a much more profitable crop for feeding hogs, and con- 
sequently other domesticated animals, than potatoes. Even when 
the essential parts of this gentleman's estimates are admitted. But 
as his calculations are erroneous throughout, and I do not wish to 
mislead, it is proper to observe, that Mr. Bordley has estimated the 
product of an acre of potatoes quite too low. For the thrifty {>rac- 
tical farmer commonly applies as mucli manure for a potato crop, as 
ought to grow about two hundred and forty bushels of this root to 
the acre ; and from such a manuring he ought as fully to expect 
seventy-five bushels of shelled corn to the acre. Agreeably to this 
estimate he obtains three bushels and a quarter of potatoes for one 
bushel of corn, and in or about the same ratio, if he manures for 
both these plants, much higher than is commonly done for a potato 
crop. 

Now, it has so happened, that my respect for Mr. Bordley's very 
superior talents, induced me to try his plan of steaming potatoes; 
and T have also boiled and fed them raw to hogs, horses, fattening 
cattle and milch cows. The result has been, that 1 would greatly 
prefer one bushel of maize for anyone of these purposes, to four 
bushels of potatoes; and in this instance, practice and observation 
seem to accord with chemical experiment: for Sir H. Davy says, 
" that one-fourth part of the weight of the potato at least may be con- 
sidered nutritive." But it should be recollected that this nutriment 
is not, on the whole, in its nature and properties, equal to that in 
corn, and that the weight of a bushel of corn is equal to that of a 
bushel of potatoes. I will, however, proceed with my calculation 
of the comparative value of each, when grown to be consumed on a 
farm, in the same way as if the nutritive matters found in both, 
were equal in their nature and properties. 

If when potatoes ire grown, but three bushels and one-fourth of 
them are obtained, where one bushel of corn might be as readily 
grown ; and there is no more nutritive matter in four bushels of the 
former, than there is in one bushel of the latter; the loss of nutri- 
tive matter, in consequence of growing one acre of potatoes, in place 
of growing tlie same ground in maize, is equal to about fifteen 
bushels corn. 

The fodder of an acre of corn, when rated at eight dollars per 

* See note, page 191, 
SI 



434 

ton, is, agreeably to the foregoing estimate, worth ten dollars and 
forty cents ; if this sum be laid out in corn at seventy -five cents 
per bushel, it will bring thirteen bushels and three-fourths. 

The extra cost of the seed for a potato crop, has been rated at 
eight dollars, sixty-two and a half cents; if this be also laid out in 
corn at seventy -five cents per bushel, it will buy eleven bushels 
and one-half. 

From this statement, it would seem that the farmer loses the 
value of forty bushels and one-fourth of corn, when he grows pota- 
toes in preference to maize, to be consumed on his farm; beside 
the expense of feeding this bulky article, which, if it be used raw, 
ought to be washed. But when he can sell his potatoes at fifty 
cents for those that are marketable, and twenty cents per bushel 
for the smaller ones, a crop of this root will be much more profitable 
to him than a crop of maize. However, an extensive growth of 
potatoes would quickly glut the market for culinary purposes. If 
it did not, the gentleman has no prospect of sending them to 
market, without more vexation and perplexity than they are worth. 

Thus it seems that maize should form the principal part of the 
gentleman's fallow crops : especially, if he finds that my descrip- 
tion of the economy of this plant, is founded on nature, reason, and 
correct practical observation. These seem to determine that maize 
is not only the most productive and extensively useful of all the 
corns, but also that is does not exhaust the soil more, if as much, 
as any of the roots or plants which are commonly grown for feed- 
ing cattle through the winter ; and that the idea of the exhausting 
properties of maize, has originated in bad husbandry; aided by the 
superior excellence of this plant, which enables it to contend with 
poverty of soil, and to withstand drought and all the unfavourable 
vicissitudes of the seasons, except an untimely frost, better than 
any other plant cultivated by us. It also clearly appears that even 
the frosts of 1816, as far north as the neighbourhood of lake Erie, 
has not been sufficient to prevent a profitable variety of that plant 
from getting perfectly hard and sound, although the corn therfe, as 
well as in most northerly situations, was either generally destroyed 
or sadly injured by frost. Nay, more, other corn grown on the same 
soil, and by the same farmer, yielded but thirty bushels per acre, and 
this much injured by frost, while the very early and valuable variety 
produced fifty bushels to the acre, sound and well filled out to the 
points of the ears. 

But if the gentleman's own good sense or any other cause should 
induce him to avoid growing turnips, beets, cabbage, &c. exten- 
sively, and he should escape the certain loss that would follow from 
growing large quantities of potatoes, and erecting the necessary 
steaming apparatus for cooking them ; and in place of these expen- 
sive and injurious practices turn his attention to maize, it may be 
useful to make some remarks on the probable result. 

If he should happen to procure a head man or farmer who is well 
acquainted with his business, industrious, sober, intelligent and 



435 

nonest ; with such a man, together with the attention the gentleman 
may consider necessary to bestow on his business, there can be but 
little doubt that his crops will be equal, and perhaps superior to the 
crops of the best full bred farmers in his neighbourhood, and such as 
would, without question, in the course of time, enrich the cultivator 
who aided the business with his own labour, together with the labour 
of his family. Yet, crops obtained through the round of the best 
common practice, will certainly bring the gentleman very consi- 
derably in debt after he has paid the expenditures of the farm, and 
has charged interest on the money vested in it, and employed there- 
on, and made due allowance for wear and tear, and deficiency in 
the value of horses, implements, &c. grown older in his service. 

Nothing short of a general assemblage of the 'very best productions 
and best cultivation that is practised in the country, can possibly 
secure success to the gentleman farmer. These are easily obtained 
by industriously gleaning every thing that can be discovered valua- 
ble in agricultural books, and in the practice of others. Through 
the medium of this simple, but certain means, the attentive agricul- 
turist may in a short time double the production of his grounds, 
without risking the uncertainty of farming from theory. He will 
also obtain from this mode of practice, aided with correct accounts, 
more real useful information in three or four years, than he could 
acquire in ten or twelve years in the usual way. In fact, it may be 
justly said, that by this means, he would in the course of Maren years, 
acquire more knowledge of practical husbandry, than is commonly 
obtained by the practice of half a century, in the usual course pur- 
sued by gentleman farmers. Much more depends on the proper 
use of time, than on the length of the time employed. Hence it is, 
that we so often see young men so far outstrip those who have grown 
grey in the practice of the same profession ; for very superior talents 
are seldom the cause of this marked difference. 

Although the agriculture of this country has not been so highly 
improved as that of Great Britain, there are farmers here, whose 
industry', ingenuity and crops would claim respectability either in 
that or any other country ; and it must be a poor farm indeed, which 
exhibits nothing worthy of the keen eye of the industrious and in- 
telligent gleaner. It may cost the gentleman no very inconsidera- 
ble share of reading, to obtain all the information he wants; yet after 
it has been procured it will be invaluable. By reading, he may soon 
acquire knowledge sufficient to engraft improvements on the best 
cultivation of his country, which will open full scope for future ex- 
periments and industry. How much wiser and safer is such a course 
than the introduction of foreign plants, or implements of cultiva- 
tion, with which his workmen are entirely unacquainted, while he 
himself is incapable of instructing them : still, it is certain, that cau- 
tious trials of this sort, in the hands of skilful cultivators, may be 
rendered highly beneficial to themselves and the agriculture of their 
country. 

Nothing can be more obvious, than that an intelligent workman 



43b 

or farmer is absolutely necessary to a gentleman, particularly on 
the commencement ol his business. Yet too generally their habits 
reduce them to a level with the rest of the workmen. They are 
too often his intimate associates, and their faults and improprieties 
of conduct will be concealed, unless it is found necessary to divulge 
tiiem in order to screen himself. 

The gentleman, in the common conduct of his business, must 
necessarily depend much on the judgment of this man, still his own 
eye should carefully inspect every thing which is done on the farm. 
Every order or instruction to his workmen, should emanate imme- 
diately from himself- His conduct should convince them, that he 
did not depend on his farmer to see that his orders were properly 
executed. It will also be found an invaluable practice to accustom 
the larraer, and every other workman on the place, to wait on him 
at a very early hour every morning, for the orders of the day. It 
will establish early rising, and prevent much loitering before busi- 
ness commences ; especially if they are taught to expect that the 
gentleman's eye will pursue them. The watching of their motions 
will be attended with much less trouble, after it is known that the 
gentleman is determined on order, regularity and industry; espe- 
cially when they discover that every transaction of the farm is 
registered, and that precedents may be produced of the labour done 
by others, to expose their idleness. They dread the quill, in the 
hands ofgjheir employer, more than a cudgel, provided the gentle- 
man preserves a dignified, but at the same time, a complaisant con- 
duct, taking care to avoid that trifling familiarity, which naturally 
insures contempt. 

Prudence will dictate the keeping as few workmen as possible 
during winter, for short days and inclement weather curtail busi- 
ness exceedingly; especially if breakfast is not over in time to 
commence business soon after it is light. Neither the farmer 
nor the workmen will be stirring, if they suspect the cultivator is 
in bed : but it is presumed no gentleman will engage in farming, 
who does not, sportsman like, value his game in proportion to the 
ingenuity and exertion which has been employed in the procuring of 
it. It will certainly be found, that no other characters are fitted for 
the purpose. A gentleman cannot farm by proxy with any more 
rational prospect of profit or reputation, than a physician could 
practice by sitting at home in his easy chair, and sending appren- 
tices to visit his patients. 

From what has been advanced, it seems that if the gentleman 
turns his attention to maize, and depends on his farmer, his crops 
will bring him considerably in debt. If he resort to books for in- 
formation, he is not likely to succeed better, if as well, as it will be 
natural for him to adopt the practice that has obtained the largest 
product. 

As Mr. Stevens's wager crop is the most prolific, it is probable 
he may determine on his mode of planting. If so, he is taught to 
believe, that " to do this expeditiously and accurately," he ought to 



437 

•' bore two rows of holes in a piece of board, four feet long, so as to 
form equilateral triangles, the sides of which were seven inches. 
Into those holes," he is directed to " drive pegs about three and a 
half inches lung," and " as the corn is dropped in the holes made" 
with this machine, a man" should " follow with a basket of rotten 
dung, with which he fills them up ;" then "carts should come on, 
out of which the rows are to be sprinkled with a coat of manure."* 
Now it is one hundred to one, whether the gentleman may consider 
that Mr. Stevens is not, in this experiment, pursuing the economi- 
cal practice of husbandry, which his knowledge of agriculture would 
have induced him to adopt, if the profit arising from the product 
and sale, or use of the crop, had been his only object in this very 
tedious and expensive business : therefore the board is formed, the 
holes bored and the pegs driven into the holes. This machine is 
placed in the hands of a man who has been used to plant corn 
vastly more expeditiously, and who despises an invention which he 
x'eadily sees can never be advantageously employed. The man who 
drops the corn in the holes, also the man who follows with the bas- 
ket of rotten dung to fill them up, as well as those who come on 
with the carts to sprinkle the rows with a coat of street manure, 
all perfectly accord in the same opinion. They despise the igno- 
rance of the employer, and as but few men, (even when they are 
well paid for it,} can be patient, when compelled to employ five 
times as much labour as is necessary to accomplish the work they 
are doing, the gentleman's labourers become impatient, and com- 
bine against him, and determine to make him sutler for putting them 
so far out of their usual way. They are also awkward in a business 
to which they have not been accustomed. Being likewise deter- 
mined not to improve, it would, by no means, be wonderful should 
planting commence at the usual time in May, if it be not finished 
until some time in June, unless the size of the field be inconsidera- 
ble ; consequently it is probable that, beside an extensive loss in 
labour sustained from the very tedious mode of planting, the corn 
latest planted will be injured by frost. It ought also to be i-ecol- 
lected, as before observed, that farmers who possess talents, capital 
and enterprise, as did Mr. Stevens, frequently obtain by their skill 
and superior attention to the cultivation of their crops, extensive 
product, when a very interesting part of their management has been 
excessively bad. But this is not likely to happen in the commence- 
ment of the gentleman's practice. On the contrary, it is probable 
that either an insufficient or mistaken cultivation, will greatly in- 
crease the very baneful effects arising from too thick planting. 

But this is not all ; for although Mr. Stevens won the wager of 
fifty guineas depending on these crops, he lost more money than did 
his competitor, Mr. Ludlow, wiio lost the bet; provided tliese gen- 
tlemen lived at that distance from town which would fix the price 
of the manure used by them, at the average cost of that article. 

* This is the substance of what is said of Mr. Stevens's mode of planting' in 
the Domes. Encyc. Araer. cd., art. Corn. 



438 

This will centre somewhere between the largest and shortest dis- 
tances, to which it is annually carried from the cities or towns where 
it is made. 

The land employed by each of them seems to have been three 
acres. It is said Mr. Stevens applied " seven hundred horse cart 
loads of street manure," and Mr. Ludlow " two hundred horse 
cart loads of street dirt ;" therefore it would seem that each of 
these loads was drawn by one horse. 

If manure be carried to a considerable distance, it is done cheap- 
est by water, but as it must be often handled and carted twice, when 
transported in this way, it costs quite as much as land carriage, if 
the distance be moderate. Therefore, it would seem that to cover 
the cost in town, also transportation, spreading it over the soil, 
sixty cents per load is a moderate estimate, without considering the 
tedious use of baskets, and sprinkling it over the rows : 
Mr. Stevens employed five hundred loads more 

than Mr. Ludlow; this, at sixty cents per 

load, amounts to gSOO 00 

Deduct from the above fifty guineas won by Mr. 

Stevens, or 233 S3 

As Mr. Stevens grew sixty bushels of corn more 

than was grown by Mr. Ludlow, this should 

also be deducted ; at seventy cents per bushel, 

it amounts to 45 00 

— '- 278 33 



Balance lost by Mr. Stevens, although fame has 
represented him to be the winner, g21 62 

The cause of this is evident : Mr Stevens planted vastly too 
thick in the rows, and Mr. Ludlow's arrangement was, saying the 
least that can be said of it, a good one, when couipared with the 
former gentleman's plan. Mr. Ludlow " planted in continued rows, 
four feet asunder, and eight inches from stalk to stalk in the rows." 
And if he had employed only half as much manure as was applied 
by Mr. Stevens, it \r probable he would have won the wager. Now 
if this had happened, as I believe it would, Mr. Stevens would have 
lost more than three hundred dollars. However, two things are 
very evident from the calculations made on these wager crops. 
First, that even an immense quantity of manure, is not capable of 
counteracting to any very considerable extent, the fatal error of too 
many plants. Secondly, that much money may be very readily lost 
in the random and injudicious cultivation of a few acres of ground, 
quite as much, or perhaps more, than the valueof the land on which 
the crop is grown ; and as the subject seems to be a very interesting 
one, especially to gentleman farmers, it will be resumed and fur- 
ther considered in my next chapter. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

The merit of different systems of cropping' and management considered. 

Jf my mixed crop of corn and potatoes, published in the second vo- 
lume of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural Sciety, 
claimed the gentleman farmer's attention, he was not likely to do 
much better by adopting this practice, than that of Mr. Stevens's 
wager crop o'^corn, at least not until after I had discovered the er- 
ror of too close planting, and made it known in the third volume 
of the Memoirs. However, in this instance, the antidote followed 
the poison before much time had elapsed. But unfortunately, espe- 
cially for gentlemen, this too seldom happens ; therefore, unless, 
they become quickly tired of playing a losing game, and abandon 
farming, they too generally sink immense sums of money before 
they become acquainted with the economy of that very simple bu- 
siness, which random and irrational practices have rendered com- 
plex, and very difficult to be understood. 

To explain the causes that led to the errors in my mixed crops, 
will consume some time and paper, but it may do good. Mr. Ste- 
vens' " noble crop" of corn had claimed my serious attention, but 
it also happened, that I had frequently observed, that the corn 
plants growing on the extremities of the fields, produced more and 
larger ears than the plants growing in the interior of them, except 
when planted near to an adjoining wood or fence. This led to the 
just conclusion, that a free access of sun and air causes this marked 
difference, and determined me to plant my corn rows wider apart, 
and grow potatoes between them. My first attempt was in 1809, 
but, as commonly happens with new practices, the business was very 
badly planned, and no better executed. Two rows of potatoes were 
planted in each interval between the rows of corn which were only 
eight feet three inches, or half a perch asunder ; this arrangement 
furnished too little soil either for the potatoes or the corn ; especi- 
ally as both these plants were cultivated by the savage practice of 
ridging them up. My ploughman was the best I have ever had, 
and always seemed willing to execute my instructions; still as he 
had never put in a mixed crop before, it was found after the plants 
came up, that the rows of corn and potatoes in many parts of the 
field were growing so near to each other, that the plough could not 
pass between them, without cutting many of them up; this induced 
me to have the corn plants growing in these places removed and 
transplanted, so that the plough might pass between them and the 
potatoes. As the corn did not stand thick in the rows, being planted 
in clusters eighteen inches asunder, and but three plants sufferer? 



440 

to remain in any one cluster, the crop on the whole was tolerable, 
notwithstanding it suffered greatly from very injudicious manage- 
ment. 

But unfortunately, though I at that time thought it a very fortu- 
nate circumstance, it so happened, that in turning the sod over the 
potato sets, ridges were formed through several parts of the field, 
and in planting the corn, several rows of it were accidentally 
planted immediately on the tops of those ridges, and on them the 
product seemed to be flattering ; this, together with the other cir- 
cumstances just related, being powerfully backed by the product 
obtained by Mr. Stevens's close hedge row planting, led me into all 
the very egregious errors which the reader may see described in my 
book on Cultivation, commencing at page 161, and continued on to 
page 164. But as a gentleman in the commencement of his business, 
cannot readily distinguish between good and bad practices, and the 
product of my mixed crop grown in 1810 was far from being incon- 
siderable, it seems to have been well calculated to lead him into 
error, especially as 1 had inferred, that a great loss occurred in con- 
sequence of a failure in the first planting, also by an error in the 
construction of the indenting roller, which with other causes re- 
duced the fruitful plants in the field to about one half the number 
originally designed. It was intended, that sixty-six plants should 
be left standing on the ridges in the length of one perch along the 
rows of corn, whereas it appeared, that after deducting the barren 
plants introduced by x'eplanting, as accurately as this could be rea- 
dily done, only about one-half the number of fruitful plants were 
left. Now the true state of the case seems to be simply this, if my 
soil, together with the advantages that are actually to be derived 
from a wider space between the rows of corn for the admission of 
more sun and air, had been as capable of perfecting sixty-six plants 
in the length of one perch on the ridges, as my estimates seemed to 
promise, that number of plants would have certainly produced much 
more corn than thirty-three growing in the same space. But I 
should have considered that such a great number of roots crowded 
together were not likely to prosper, notwithstanding all the advan- 
tages that might be derived from more sun and air, and from the 
points of the angles employed by me being made much wider apart 
than those used by Mr. Stevens, for planting his double rows of 
corn ; however, as the planting did not fail in my crops grown in 
1811, they clearly determined, that the crop with only thirty-three 
fruitful plants in the length of one perch on the ridges, and these 
standing irregularly, and also incumbered with many barren re- 
planted stalks, would have produced much more corn, if necessity 
had not urged me to cut the tops, and strip the blades, for feeding 
my cattle in the yard, before the grain was sufliciently matured, 
as will appear from a correct experiment made to determine the 
probable loss sustained, in consequence of too early topping and 
stripping the plants. The growing of my mixed crop in J 810, did 
not convince me of the error of too many potato plants. But as the 



441 

soil necessary for covering the seed, together with that used in 
ridging up the plants, sunk the furrows in many instances below the 
roots of the plants, the injury sustained by planting them too shal- 
low was very evident, therefore when the result of the crop was 
communicated, I was careful to observe, that, " the potatoes would 
have been luxuriant, had it been sufficiently considered that nature 
had designed them to grow under the ground, for the high planting 
and dry weather while they were fruiting reduced their usual size 
considerably." This observation was the candid result of reflecting 
on the cause of a mortifying disappointment, but it was not until 
after the growth of my crops in 1811, that I clearly saw that the 
general system of cultivation was radically wrong, and that the 
merit of practices highly recommended, especially by books, too 
generally rested on the capital and active enterprise of those by 
whom they were first introduced : also, that those evils, together 
with irrational theories, would never cease to perplex, as well as 
disappoint the farmer in his best laid plans to improve, of course 
greatly injure the interests of agriculture, until nature and reason 
were harmonized in the practice of husbandry. For until this be 
done, no general fixed principles of cultivation can be established, 
by which the agriculturist, especially the gentleman farmer, may 
govern his practice. That these general fixed principles have not 
been established, seems evident, as the British Board of Agricul- 
ture did not contradict Sir H. Davy, when he read before them, 
that " no general principles can be laid down respecting the com- 
parative merit of the dilferent systems of cultivation, and the diffe- 
rent system of crops adapted in different districts, unless the che- 
mical nature of the soil, and the physical circumstances to which it 
is exposed a.ve fully known.''^* 

Now it seems that this gentleman might as well have said it 
was not probable that any general principles could ever " be laid 
down respecting the different systems of cultivation," as to say 
this could not be done, " unless the chemical nature of the soil, 
and the physical circumstances to which it is exposed, are fully 
known :^^ for the world must become infinitely wiser than it now 
is, before these things a.ve fully known. 

It is not to be doubted if these very interesting subjects could 
be, and weve, fully knuwn^ that the interest of agriculture might be 
greatly promoted by the proper use of this information. It seems, 
however, from what has been advanced in my book on Manures, 
that nature has so fixed the general principles of cultivation, that 
they would have been as obvious as any of the facts which are 
generally known, if her economy in the grounds that have been 
subjected for ages to her perfect system of management alone, had 
been attentively observed and carefully considered. In these 
grounds it may be readily seen that animal and vegetable matter 
prepares the texture of every soil to produce luxuriant crops, be 



* See his Lee. on Agr. CUera. page 24 
3K 



442 

its earthy ingredients what they may: except where those matters 
exist ill too large quantities, as in peat, &c., and in these cases the 
remedy is obvious: but as too great an accumulation of animal and 
vegetable matter does not occur in grounds which have been sub- 
jected to cultivation, there is no substantial reason why a general sys- 
tem of cultivation may not be established. There maybe soils which 
are so poisoned with minerals that stable manures will not correct 
the evil. Such grounds, however, cannot be generally very exten- 
sive, as I have never seen any of them. Neither have I observed 
that chemistry has done any thing more towards correcting offend- 
ing matters in soils than merely to confirm and better explain what 
practice and observation had before established : for Sir H. Davy, 
in enumerating the improvements of steril soils, says, " A soil of 
good apparent texture from Lincolnshire was put into my hands 
by Sir J. Banks, as remarkable for sterility: on examining it, I 
found that it contained sulphate of iron; and I offered the obvious 
remedy of top dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into 
a manure." " If there be an excess of calcareous matter in the soil, 
it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too 
abundant in sand are benefited by the use of clay, or marl, or ve- 
getable matter." " An excess of vegetable matter is to be removed 
by burning, or to be remedied by the application of earthy mate- 
rials." " The improvement of peats, or bogs, or marsh lands, must 
be preceded by draining. Soft black peats, when drained, are 
often made productive by the mere application of sand or clay 
as a top dressing. When peats are acid, or contain ferruginous 
salts, calcareous matter is absolutely necessary to bring them into 
cultivation. When they abound in the branches and roots of trees, 
or when their surface entirely consists of living vegetables, the 
wood or vegetables must either be carried oflT, or be destroyed by 
burning. In the last case the ashes afford earthy ingredients fitted 
to improve the texture of the peat."* Sir H. ought not to have 
confined the use of the ashes to the mere earthy ingredients fur- 
nished by them, as that would be too inconsiderable to do much 
good, while the alkaline and other salts are very extensively use- 
ful. It is also very observable, that he likewise overlooks the 
value of these salts in paring and burning the soil, while he takes 
great pains to impress on us the great value to be derived from the 
charcoal to be obtained by this truly savage practice. In fact it 
would seem that this gentleman's attempts to overset the rational 
theory of the action of gypsum, powdered limestones, &c. have led 
him into much error. 

With respect to " the physical circumstances to which" the soil 
"is exposed," local and hidden causes render these so various, 
that it is at least doubtful whether they will be ever "fully known." 
But this we may know, that in every climate and situation vegeta- 
tion seems to be as luxuriant as might be rationally expected to 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 204. 



443 

be grown in such climates and situations, if a sufficiency of animal 
and vegetable matters exist in the soil: consequently our imper- 
fect knowledge of what, perhaps, it was never intended should be 
'^ fully known" by us, can be no bar against the introduction of 
general principles of cultivation. 

Now it is evident that the most which can be said of the forego- 
ing quotation from Sir H. Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, is, that 
chemical experiment has confirmed and better explained what the 
talents, observation and enterprise of plain practical farmers had 
long before brought into actual use. This is by no means surpris- 
ing: on the contrary, as nature is not partial to any grade of so- 
ciety, in the distribution of talents, it would be wonderful indeed, 
if an immense number of men actively engaged in any simple em- 
ployment, the knowledge of which rested principally upon practice 
and attentive observation, would not attain much more practical in- 
formation concerning it, than a few whose knowledge of it rested 
principally on chemical experiment; than which, nothing can be 
more deceptive. It is, in many cases, not only exceedingly diffi- 
cult, but seemingly impossible to combine in these experiments, all 
the known, as well as unknown causes which operate in actual prac- 
tice ; or if these causes were known and could be combined, the 
necessary proportion of each to form a correct experiment, would 
be, in many cases, a very difficult question. Witness Sir H. Davy^s 
experiment on charcoal, which seems to have led him into the erro- 
neous opinion, that this substance, when obtained by paring and 
burning the soil, acted as a powerful manure. Also, witness the 
conclusions drawn by this gentleman, from his experiment made by 
mixing gypsum with minced veal. But to return. 

If the gentleman should place no moredependance on chemistry, 
than is justly due to it, and turn his particular attention to the agri- 
cultural writings of the most celebrated authors, he will find it 
equally necessary to sift the chaff from the wheat. 

The celebrated A. Young appears to stand, at least, among the 
foremost on the list. Accident seems to have favoured his fame. 
He commenced his agricultural career when the mania for gentle- 
man farming in England was spreading far and wide. When he 
says, " Lawyers, clergymen, soldiers, sailors and merchants" were 
engaged in husbandry, and "the farming tribe was made up of all 
ranks from a duke to an apprentice;"* and while but too many of 
the gentlemen, &c. engaged in the business, knew but litttle or 
nothing of it. This, together with no small share of talents, aided 
by an enterprising spirit, and a marked prejudice against the plain 
practical farmers, whom he not only depreciates, but also degrades 
lower that any other people in the world,! obtained so much re- 
spect for his opinions than his errors have not been sufficiently dis- 
tinguished or exposed. Although, so far as my information extends, 
general opinion seems to have determined, that after saying the 

• See bis Rural Economy, page 93. f Idem, page 92. 



444 

most that could be justly said in favour of the grounds farmed by 
liim, they were very far from exhibiting any marks of superior ma- 
nagement ; anil not to be favourably compared either in point of pro- 
Jit or real (not sordid) economical management with those occu- 
pied by many plain practical, or as we have too often called them 
common farmers. There are certainly too many farmers whose 
practice clearly evinces that they have either no disposition or 
talents to improve. It matters not if they be degraded. But it is 
equally certain that there are many farmers whose talents, observa- 
tion and enterprise do honour to their profession : also, that gentle- 
men are principally indebted to this class of cultivators for by far 
the greater part of the useful knowledge they now possess of hus- 
bandry ; notwithstanding ail that may have been written or said to 
the contrary. 

It will be recollected that I write in the back-woods, where books 
are not plenty. This prevents me from quoting any of Mr. Young's 
writings, except his essays on "Rural Economy."* That part of 
this book which advises gentleman farmers to govern their practice 
by correct farming accounts, and not to rent more land than may 
be judiciously managed, with the capital they actually possess or 
mean to employ, is excellent. The arguments used to convince 
them that notliing can be more fatally deceptive than the too general 
opinion that farming requires but little capital or experience ; espe- 
cially, when a gentleman who neither works himself nor obtains 
any laborious assistance from his family, engages in this business, 
is worthy the pen of Mr. Young, or any other gentleman of talents. 
As what he advances on this very interesting subject, clearly de- 
termines that on this part of the economy of farming, he was well 
informed. 

When Mr. Young describes ''that proportioned farm," which he 
says "is of all others, the most profitable," he observes, '• I do not 
mean to show what farm will yield the greatest income, because in 
most cases, the largest will, in that respect, be the best ; but I would 
discover if there be not a peculiar ^?rupor<:ion between the parts, re- 
markably favourable to profit and convenience, and not in farms 
only of a certain rent, but in all sorts." "The first division of a 
farm is into arable and pasture land;" "the arable land requires 
draught cattle to cultivate it and carry out its products, the grass 
must be applied to the feeding or fattening of other cattle."t 

" Suppose that in stocking of a small farm, that twenty acres of 
arable land per horse, is the quantity to be managed properly by 
the team ; four horses will in that case, cultivate eighty acres of ara- 
ble. Now what are the proportions that can be drawn from this 
one fact? Eighty acres of arable land managed by four horses, 
maj, if the soil is not heavy, be thrown into fourths ; one sown every 
year with turnips, one with spring corn, one with wheat and one with 

* It has so happened that this book has found its way here, 
t See his Itural Economy, page 8. 



445 

clover; if the soil be heavy, a fallow or some other fallow crop should 
be substituted instead of turnips. If a fourth be not clover, the 
four horses cannot be managed properly. 

" Before we proceed further, new proportions arise ; we will al- 
low each horse two tons of hay per winter, which will leave him a 
little to spare for summer. This at two mowings, may be reasona- 
bly called four acres. For the summer food, we will allow the four 
horses six acres of green clover. Thus the whole quantity eaten by 
the four horses, is ten acres. There are twenty acres of stubble for 
littering the yard; part of the straw of the wheat must be applied 
to littering the four horses, the rest given to the cattle : here, there- 
fore, is the following winter food; twenty acres of turnips, twenty 
tons of clover hay, twenty acres of spring corn straw, and part of 
twenty acres of wheat straw. 

"The next inquiry is the cattle these will winter. The food is 
all well adapted to different kinds; but I shall suppose them hei- 
fers, steers, or oxen. The order in which they should be fed, is to 
give them the wheat straw first with some turnips; next the spring 
corn straw with some turnips ; and then the clover hay with the 
rest of the turnips; which progression will carry them forward in 
flesh, and get them in fine order to turn out into grass, to complete 
the fattening. The number I should assign, in this management, 
to such a quantity of food is thirty head. Thirty middling steers 
•would be well wintered on this food. The reader will remember 
they are not fatted, only kept ; all that is wanting, is to keep them 
rather on the improving hand. The quantity of winter food points 
out in this manner, the number of cattle to be kept, and this will 
discover the quantity of grass land such a farm ought to have ; this 
is at once determined, for we may allow an acre per beast, or thirty 
acres." "Thus we find the number of horses a clue to discover the 
whole economy of a farm."* 

This may not only be an ingenious but also a very judicious 
arrangement in England. Where the prejudices of agriculturists 
are too generally in favour of old grass grounds and other inju- 
rious practices, which make much against the introduction of a bet- 
ter system of arrangement; also, wliere no plant has yet been 
successfully cultivated which produces luxuriant crops of grain, 
and likewise tops and foliage that afford extensive crops of very 
nutritious fodder for feeding cattle through the winter. 

However, to prove that the practice of growing in this country 
extensive crops of turnips, or other roots, or, in fact, any kind of 
green food yet known to us except grass, for feeding cattle through 
the winter, would be very injurious to agriculture, I will divide 
the number of acres employed by Mr. Young, to wit, one hun- 
dred and ten, into sixths. The rotation of crops to proceed as 
follows: 

* See his Rural Economy, pag'es 9, 10, 11, 



44t) 



Maize, 
Barley, 


Acres. 
- - 18^ 
• 18^ 


Red clover, - 

Wheat, 
Orchard grass, 
Ditto ditto, - 


- 18i 



Acres. 
184 



ISi 



Annually in grain, 55 Annually in grass, 55 
The orchard grass in this arrangement is to be continued two 
years: consequently eighteen and one-third acres of the sod formed 
by it will be annually turned up for maize. 

For summer feeding the steers, 30 acres of grass, 
hay for the horses, 4 

summer feeding ditto, 6 

part of the winter food 

for the steers, 15 

55 acres. 
This appropriates the whole of the grass, including the clover: 
consequently the deficiency in the grass grounds to supply the 
thirty steers with winter food is to be made up by using the fodder 
obtained from the eighteen and one-third acres of maize also for 
this purpose. 

To estimate the quantity of the remaining products that may be 
obtained from these grounds, the quality of the soil, and the ma- 
nures that may be readily obtained, should be considered. 

As Mr. Young allots onl}' one acre of ground for summer fatten- 
ing a middling steer or ox, the ground may be justly considered 
good, though not of the first quality. 

The thirty steers or oxen and four horses littered with the corn 
stalks and straw obtained from fifty-five acres of land, will furnish 
a very respectable manuring for eighteen and one-third acres of 
ground, without the aid of the very heavy expense arising from ga- 
thering and hauling large quantities of marl, mould, and anthills, to 
bottom the yard and mix with the dung, as has been recommended by 
this gentleman. In his Rural Economy he employs an amazing quan- 
tity of soil to be had from anthills, ike. This can only be obtained 
where a bad system of management suff'ers the grounds to continue 
too long in grass; which gives to ants, cutworms, &c. peaceable 
possession so long, that the multiplication of some of these intru- 
ders is often so very great, that paring and burning the soil is fre- 
quently considered necessary, unless inferior crops be cultivated 
until the numbers of the animalcula be very considerably reduced, 
and the consolidated soil sufficiently pulverised.* But to return. 

* Serious inquiries have of late been made in the Farmer's Journal to learn 
the best ineans by which anthills are to be destroyed. Britons ought, how- 



447 

If the manure which may be gathered from the system of manage- 
ment that has been recommended be properly ordered, and applied 
previously to fermentation, it will introduce much more nutriment 
for plants than can be obtained by mixing it with earths ; even 
supposing the latter to contain more animal and vegetable matter 
than is generally incorporated with the soils used for this purpose; 
and that no more time is employed in this expensive practice than 
will produce a partial decomposition of the animal and vegetable 
matter contained in the whole mass. 

It is also presumed that in this country, where gypsum acts* 
powerfully, that such a soil as Mr. Young has selected, previously 
manured for the crop of maize, will yield full two tons of clover 
hay at one mowing; and that the second crop of that grass may be 
ploughed under for the wheat. This will not only add to the 
value of that crop, but also greatly promote the growth and pros- 
perity of the orchard grass following it. There will be sufficient 
litter without incurring the expense of mowing the stubbles. If 
this were not the case, they should never be mowed where grass 
seeds have been sown, except where the grass is so luxuriant that 
it falls while the weather is sufficiently warm to favour a degree 
of fermentation which would endanger the roots of it. 

The stubbles cannot be mowed without cutting off the tops of the 
grass plants. This retards the growth of the roots of the young 
grasses amazingly; and as cold weather sets in too soon to admit 
of much improvement in the extent and size of them after they 
have recovered from the debility occasioned by this mutilation, 
nature, when the spring opens, is compelled to apply a considera- 
ble proportion of her efforts to multiply and enlarge the roots of 
the grasses, which ought to be applied to the growth and perfec- 
tion of their tops. This, with by far too little seed, causes (what 
we but too often see) the second year's mowing of the grasses 
greatly to exceed the quantity mowed the first year after the seed 
has been sown. Yet gentlemen of the first agricultural talents 
tell us the young grasses should be pastured to thicken the piles 
although this is vastly more injurious than the mowing, as the 
hoofs of the cattle not only sink too freely into ground that has 
been recently ploughed, but their mouths also pull up many of the 
plants which cannot yet be firmly established in the soil. It should 
also be duly appreciated, that the rotting of the stubble and young 
grasses on the soil will add considerably to the fertility of it. 

It is calculated that the fifteen acres of grass appropriated for 
a part of the winter food for the thirty steers may be twice mowed. 
But as the plants will be young and vigorous, and growing in an 
open, free soil, it may happen that the hay made from but one 
mowing, together with the corn fodder, will be sufficient. If so, 

ever, to have long since known thatanthills, cutworms, and old gjass ground 
are inseparable companions. 



448 

I would advise the cultivator to let the second crop rot on the 
ground. Although pasturing, if properly managed, enriches the 
soil, mowing and removing the product, exhaust it. Here it may 
be proper to remark, that the gentleman is not to expect thick, 
well set grounds soon after they are sown; unless he sows as 
much seed as will produce as many plants as the grounds are ca- 
pable of perfecting. It is certainly very inconsiderate to depend 
either on the seed from the young grasses, or the siioots from their 
roots, to increase the product. Much of the rent of the land is lost, 
♦and the growth of weeds greatly promoted, by this very erroneous 
practice. 

When the superior advantages enumerated above are estimated, 
seventy-five bushels of maize to the acre may be justly considered 
a moderate crop. Although this grain often sells in the early part 
of the winter for less than seventy-five cents per bushel, those 
farmers who have a sufficient capital to keep it for the market of 
the ensuing summer, commonly obtain this price, taking one year 
with another. Forty bushels of barley is but a moderate crop 
when the grounds and cultivation are good; and ninety cents 
per bushel does not seem to exceed the average price. Thirty 
bushels of wheat to the acre may not be far from the mark; al- 
though much more is often grown under such favourable circum- 
stances as have been enumerated ; and one dollar twenty -five cents 
per bushel it is presumed will not be considered too high for the 
average price. 

18^ acres of maize at 75 bushels 

to the acre is - - 1375 at 75 is B 1031 25 

18^ acres of barley at 40 bushels 

to the acre is - - 733 at 90 is 659 70 

1 8| acres of wheat at 30 bushels 

to the acre is - - 550 at gl 25 is 687 50 



The whole number of bush, of gr. 2658 §2378 45 

Profit on 30 steers winter kept and summer fat- 
tened, rated at g 20 each steer is - - 600 00 



g2978 45 



Deduct one-half this sum for the whole annual ex- 
pense of the farm, - - - - - 1489 22^ 

This leaves a neat clear annual profit of - S 1489 22| 

Now it should be observed, that those crops are to be obtained by 
two ploughings, as the barley will be put in by the hoe and tined 
harrows, and that Mr. Young in his Rural Economy, recommends 
from four to six ploughings for turnips ; three ploughings for barley. 



449 

and one for wheat ;* of consequence his management requires about 
four times as much ploughing, besides ploughing five acres more 
than is done to obtain the products enumerated above. 

This is certainly a very serious additional expense, especially in 
America, where labour is high; however, in estimating the profit 
that may be obtained by Mr. Young's system in this country, I will 
waive this expense, and that of hauling much mould, &c. and heap- 
ing, turnin g and mixing composts ; also mowing and raking up stub- 
bles, and deduct no more for the expenses of a farm managed as 
this gentle man directs, than has been deducted above, for the ex- 
penses arising on a much more economical management. I would, 
however, advise the gentleman farmer, to estimate this enormous 
extra expense correctly, and after this be done, to reflect whether it 
be possible, that the gentlemen who have so strenuously advised us 
to grow turnips and other roots extensively in this country for feed- 
ing cattle, could have ever had any real practical knowledge of the 
subject. 

The products of Mr. Young's arrangement are as follows : 

20 acres of barley, 40 bushels to the acre is 800 

bushels, this at 90 cents is - - - - g720 00 

^0 acres of wheat, SO bushels to the acre is 600 

bushels, this at gl 25 is - - - - 750 00 

Profit on SO steers winter kept, and summer fat- 
tened at S20 each steer, ... - 600 00 

2070 00 
Deduct from this amount for the whole annual ex- 
penses of the farm the same sum as is deducted 
for the same purpose in the former statement, 1489 22| 

This leaves a neat clear annual profit of only g580 77^ 

The price of land varies exceedingly in this country. The vici- 
nity of a city or town often greatly enhances the price, when no 
real advantage is to be derived from the situation, except to the 
huckster, or the gentleman, whose previous habits strongly propel 
him to have it in his power readily to mix with the busy or fashion- 
able world. 

There is also another cause, especially in some parts of Pennsyl- 
vania, for lands selling for much more than they are really worth. 
Some settlements consist principally of farmers, whose rigid, or 
perhaps sordid economy, has made them more wealthy than other 
farmers who are equally industrious. These men will give great 
prices for lands, adjoining, or lying near to their farms. The annual 
profit that may be derived from the grounds seems not to be suflB- 
ciently considered by them, but they have such a great aversion to 
paying interest on any part of the purchase money, that no reason- 

• See Uural Economy, page 14.3. 
3L 



150 

able consideration could induce many of them to buy on ttiose 
terms. 

The last described neighbourhood can have no charms for the 
gentleman farmer; the former he had better avoid, as it is well cal- 
culated to introduce a round of company, and promote ideas in his 
family, that are entirely inconsistent with the economy of farming, 
and in fact with the happiness that may be rationally expected from 
rural pursuits. 

This being premised, it is believed that the gentleman may pur- 
chase land equal to that described by Mr. Young, on which a good 
and very comfortable dwelling-house, and other necessary buildings 
are erected at one hundred dollars per acre. 

110 acres of land at 100 dollars per acre, amounts 

to gll,000 00 

Such a farm may be very advantageously manag- 
ed with a capital of _ . _ . s,000 00 



The whole amount of money vested in and em- 
ployed on the farm will be - - - §14,000 00 

Consequently by the first arrangement of crops, the cultivator 
will clear something more than ten percent, on the money vested in 
his farm, and in the capital necessary to carry it on, whereas by 
the arrangement recommended by Mr. Young, he would clear but 
very little more than four per cent; this would make farnnng a los- 
ing game, as no business can be otherwise, that will not clear legal 
interest on the money employed in it. 

It is true the gentleman will obtain a profit over and above the 
neat clear income of his farm, in consequence of lands rising in 
proportion to the increased population and prosperity of the country ; 
also in consequence of the great improvement he will make in the 
soil. But to the latter he is justly entitled, as it is the result of his 
superior management, and as a considerable proportion of the seem- 
ing rise in the value of landed property, originates in the regular 
depreciation of gold and silver, provided the gentleman's purchase 
be made in a well settled neighbourhood, the balance over and abovt 
the depreciation of money seems to be justly due to him, for but 
few who rent their grounds to others obtain legal interest on the 
purchase money 

If any cause should exist to induce the gentleman to grow any of 
the plants grown in Great Britain for fallow crops, the horsebean, 
or a larger variety of that plant, seems to be best, as all the English 
peas when grown in this country, appear to be eaten by the fly. But 
as the fodder from the beans, (though sometimes fed to cattle,) does 
not seem to be sufficiently nutritive for that purpose, the size of the 
farm should be enlarged by an addition often acres, if thirty middling 
steers or oxen are winter kept and summer fattened. These one 
hundred and twenty acres should be divided into sixths, to wit : 



451 





Acres. 


Beans, 


20 


Barley, 


20 


Red clover, - 


- 


Wheat, 


20 


Orchard grass, 


- 


Do. do. 


- 



A(yes. 



20 

20 
20 

Annually in grain, 60 Annually in grass, 60 

The society for the encouragement of the arts, adjudged a pre- 
mium of twenty guineas to L. Magendie, Esq. for growing on fif- 
teen acres, four hundred and seventy -three bushels of horsebeans.* 
This is not quite thirty-two bushels to the acre ; however, it seems 
probable that if a productive variety of the bean be selected, thirty- 
two bushels to the acre, may not be too high an estimate for the 
average product. I believe beans are much less nutritive than maize ; 
but as I am recommending the latter in preference to any plant, 
■when extensive fallow crops are grown, it may be best to rate the 
price of the beans at seventy-five cents per bushel, which is equal to 
the price fixed on the maize in the foregoing statement. 

20 acres of beans at 32 bushels to the acre, is 

640 bushels at 75 cents per bushel, is g480 00 

£0 acres of barley at 40 bushels to the acre, is 

800 bushels at 90 cents per bushel, is 720 00 

20 acres of wheat at SO bushels to the acre, is 

600 bushels at gl 25 cents per bushel, is 750 00 

Profit on SO steers winter kept and summer 

fattened, at g20 each, 600 00 



g2550 00 



Deduct interest on glOOO for 10 additional 
acres of land. 

Deduct also for the annual expenses of the 
farm, the same sum as has been deducted 
for the same purpose in the two foregoing 
statements, 1489 22^ 



1549 221 



The neat clear annual profit of the farm glOOO 771 

30 acres of grass is allotted to summer fatten the steers or oxen. 
20 acres at two mowings is considered enough to furnish hay for 
winter feeding them. 

4 acres is allowed for hay for the four horses. 

6 acres for summer feeding them. 

60 acres in the whole. 

* See Domes, Encyc. art. Bean, 



452 

Mr. Young says, " in respect to the product of hay, it varies from 
grass, which at one mowing will yield fifteen cwt, (lower than that 
I think we should not descend,) to that which at two, affords five 
tons per acre."* Of clover he says, " in mowing, I should fix the 
extremes, at a ton and a half, and five tons and a half, both at two 
inowings."t If these calculations be admitted, 1 am considerably 
under the mark in allotting twenty acres of grass for furnishing, at 
two mowings, sixty tons of hay for winter feeding the thirty mid- 
dling steers or oxen. But in statements of this kind, it is far bet- 
ter to calculate so as to favour the system we mean to oppose. Here 
it may be proper to remark, that although I follow Mr. Young in 
allowing ten acres for furnishing grass and hay for the horses, it is 
more than enough, even when the horses are pastured ; and I trust 
when the subject of soiling is considered, that however uncertain 
or impracticable that mode of management may appear to be, on 
an extensive scale in this country, until it be better understood, it 
will clearly appear that feeding the working cattle in the yard, or 
in sheds or stables through the summer as well as the winter, will 
not only save much grass, but labour also ; and that five acres will 
be found more than sufficient for this purpose: still, the gentleman 
ought not to estimate an additional profit on the five acres saved in 
this way, for bad seasons curtail crops ; therefore he ought ahvays 
to have a plenty of old hay in store to meet such an occurrence. 

Now it would seem from the foregoing statements, that if the 
cultivator grows hay in the place of turnips for winter feeding his 
cattle, he will obtain seven per cent, on the*noney vested in his 
farm, and in the capital necessary to carry it on, in place of only 
four per cent, even when beans are grown for his fallow crop : also 
that the litter obtained from sixty acres of bean and other straw, 
will be sufticient to make manure for the ensuing fallow crop. 

But Mr. Young says, " turnips or cabbages go infinitely further 
than dry food. I much question whether an acre of turnips will 
not go further than five, six or seven pounds in hay, and an acre of 
cabbages far beyond that.'"4 When calculations are made on false 
principles, the conclusions drawn by them must be erroneous ; as is 
evidently the case in this instance ; for it cannot be determined 
whether hay or turnips may be most profitable for feeding cattle 
through the winter, by comparing the product of an acre of turnips 
with as much hay as may be bought or sold for five, six or seven 
pounds, or indeed for any other sum of money. 

Wheat and other small grain cannot be profitably grown, unless 
the weeds be subdued. To do this a naked fallow is laboriously 
cultivatedby too many in England. As this yields nothing, there 
are also a great many cultivators in that country, who grow fallow 
crops of turnips for this purpose, although they lack cattle to con- 
sume them. Of this, Mr. Young says, " many farmers cultivate 
turnips with great care, and cultivate fine crops of them, but want 
cattle in the winter, to feed them to advantage ; they are then to be 

* See his Rural Economy, page 72. f Idem, page 74. + Idem, pages 65, 66, 



453 

sold to Somebody else, and as they must be sold, it is twenty to 
one to a disadvantage."* This gentleman, when advising graziers 
to buy turnips for feeding cattle, also says, they " are to be purchas- 
ed in every part of the kingdom with which I am acquainted, in any 
quantities."! He rates the value of an acre of turnips from twen- 
ty to sixty shillings sterling. The medium of these sums is forty 
shillings sterling, or eight dollars and eighty -nine cents. 

He says nothing in his Rural Economy of the price of hay; how- 
ever, in 1816, the Farmers' Journal, published in England, quotes 
the price of this article at from four pounds ten shillings to five 
pounds ; and a friend of mine who lived in England about six years 
ago, says he gave six pounds six shillings and eight pence per ton 
for hay. But as it is better to be under than over the mark, I will 
rate the price of hay at four pounds ten shillings sterling, or twen- 
ty dollars per ton. Thus the hay from an acre of grass yielding 
three tons at two mowings sells for sixty dollars, or for more than 
six acres of turnips. This is a very great difference ; but as tur- 
nips may have risen in price since Mr. Young wrote his Rural Eco- 
nomy, it may be best to say, that the hay from an acre of grass will 
sell for three or four times as much as an acre of turnips. However, 
notwithstanding this, the bad management of by far too many farm- 
ers in England, causes turnips to be plenty at these reduced prices ; 
and it is generally said in that country, (even by gentlemen of ta- 
lents, who ought to know better,) that turnips are a much cheaper 
food than hay, for keeping cattle through the winter. But it should 
be recollected, that writers on agriculture ought not to form calcw- 
lations on what may be done by a barter or sale, originating in a bad 
system of management, and that the question should be simply 
this, to wit : is it more economical to grow grass, or to cultivate 
turnips for winter feeding cattle .'' for if the product be consumed on 
the farm, it certainly matters not, what either the one or the other 
would sell for in money. 

Mr. Young allots twenty acres of turnips, with twenty tons ol" 
hay, and a part of the twenty acres of wheat straw for winter Keeping 
the thirty middling steers or oxen mentioned above. " Mitldiing"' 
is a vague term, from which nothing certain can be inferred ; how- 
ever, to make the subject plainer, it is considered proper to remark, 
that two tons of hay, saying the least that can be readily admitted, 
will be found fully sufficient to winter feed an ox, or steer, which 
when fattened on grass alone, will weigh seven hundred pounds ; 
that is, the four quarters of the animal will weigh this, independent 
of the hide, gut, fat, &c. As sixty tons of hay is no more than 
should be reasonably expected from twenty acres of such grass 
grounds as have been described in the foregoing estimate,^ an acre 

• See his Rural Economy, page 9. f Idem, pag-e 59. 

+ That is grass grounds wliich are in good condition, and which have no* 
been consolidated by time and the hoofs of the cattle, nor overrun by anthills^ 
moss, h&rdy weeds, &c. 



454 

of grass seems to be equal to an acre of turnips, taking one year 
with another, for it should be recollected, that although turnips are 
sometimes very luxuriant, there is no crop cultivated by us, that is 
more uncertain than this root, and that grass may be justly ranked 
among the surest crops grown in this country. Also, that when hay 
has been well secured, it may be safely kept for any reasonable 
length of time, and if there be more than is wanted, it commands a 
good price. Whereas turnips, after they have been apparently well 
secured with great labour and expense, if the weather happens to 
be unusually warm, or the frosts uncommonly severe, are often 
greatly injured ; it is also obvious, that much of the nutriment con- 
tained in them is lost by a very early and rapi<l growth, either in 
the latter part of the winter, or in the spring, and that no manage- 
ment yet known to us, can prevent this injury, if the weather hap- 
pens to be warm : also, that if a surplus be left they can neither be 
preserved nor sold ; and that an acre of grass may be twice mowed, 
made into hay, and well secured for one- third the money or labour 
employed in cultivating and securing an acre of turnips properly. 
' That hay is a very nutritious food for keeping cattle through the 
winter is seen from what Mr. Young says of it, to wit, " If cows be" 
the farmer's stock, " whether for the dairy, or for suckling, he must 
provide winter as well as summer food I have known some of these 
farms," that is dairy or suckling farms, "and the common method is 
to feed them all winter long with hay, and the remains of the last 
year's grass, which they keep very late for that purpose."* In ano- 
ther place he observes, that for oxen of seventy stone, that is nine 
hundred and eighty pounds, " the principal winter food purchased 
should be turnips, if they can be had, and with them straw ; if tur- 
nips are not to be procured, straw alone, which if good, and given 
them with attention, will improve them, that is they will thrive, 
which is all that is wanting. In the spring each should have a ton 
of hay, which will bring them into goodjiesh, and greatly aid the 
whole fatting."! The small Welch or Scotch runts, or any other 
cattle, reared where a lack of sufficient nutritive food, has not only 
reduced their size, but also habituated them to live, where cattle 
that have been accustomed to fare much better, would perish by 
the diseases which seldom fail to accompany a lack of sufficient 
nutriment, may thrive when wintered on straw alone. But so far 
as my observation extends, the ox of seventy stone, or indeed of a 
considerable less size than this, is so far from thriving on straw 
alone, that he becomes poor on such food, and but too often dies, if 
the season for feeding on dry fodder happens to be protracted, be- 
fore sufficient grass has grown to prevent the injury. The cause is 
obvious, for the size of cattle depends principally on the nutriment 
provided for them : therefore, those that have been accustomed to 
live well, cannot be profitably kept on very inferior food : but of 
this more will be said in the following chapter. 

* See his Rural Economy, page 52. f Idem, page 6U 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

A description of the eflFects produced by feeding cattle on straw through the 
winter Large farms are more expensive than smaller ones in proportion 
to size. How gentlemen may improve agriculture generally : also, the sys- 
tems pursued by the tenants living on their estates. Remarks on improved 
breeds of cattle, also, on complex and expensive agricultural implements 
of husbandry, 

J. DO not know how many may have suffered from the inconsiderate 
advice that has been given by Mr. Young and others, to winter cat- 
tle on straw alone. 1 do, however, know one gentleman who suf- 
fered very severely from this practice. He had bought and remov- 
ed to a farm on which his predecessor, like too many of our farmers, 
used the plough too freely, and had grown extensive fields of small 
grain, and but little grass. The gentleman purchased the crops 
with the farm. As money was plenty, and the practical knowledge 
of agriculture scarce, he determined to buy cattle to be winter kept 
on straw ; for by this means, he fully expected to make a great deal 
of manure, with but little expense. His barn, &c. had been modern- 
ized, and the cattle were kept in these newly constructed stalls, 
well secured from the injurious effects of the inclemency of the 
winter; they were also regularly fed and watered, and allowed a 
plenty of salt, and when it was discovered that they did not seem to 
do well, the straw was cut into chaff, but without any apparent good 
effect. The hollow horn, a disease which seldom fails to attack half 
famished cattle, became very prevalent among them. A consider- 
able proportion of them died, and those that survived were so low 
in flesh, that they would not have sold in the spring, for any thing 
like what they cost in the fall. 

Now a gentleman in this situation, naturally inquires of his far- 
mer or workmen, if the assistance of a person well skilled in the 
diseases of cattle can be obtained. As there are men in almost 
every neighbourhood who can bleed a horse, and enumerate a num- 
ber of drenches, that will produce, if they may be believed, won- 
derful effects, it is twenty to one, but the gentleman's farmer or 
workmen will tell him, there is a man residing but a few miles dis- 
tant from the farm, who is considered very skilful, and that he has 
also been very successful in that profession : of consequence the 
doctor is sent for, but when he appears in a black leathern apron, 
with a face near the same colour, the gentleman must be astonished 
beyond measure, and be at least very doubtful whether it is possible 
that such talents as had been represented, could lie beneath the 
outside garb of the figure before him. However, as the cases are 
desperate, he seems to be compelled to permit the blacksmith to 



456 

try his skill, for he is placed much in the same situation as those 
incurables, who, after trying all the most eminent phj'sicians in 
vain, hang their last dying hope on some ignorant quack. It is 
also by no means improbable, that after the first surprise, the gen- 
tlemans hopes may revive, as it is very likely he will recollect that 
blacksmiths shoe horses, and that this may possibly lead them to 
study the diseases to which they and other domesticated animals are 
subject, and also to practice with no small share of skill. That it 
leads to practice is evident, for the doctor brings his bleeding tools 
with him, and being permitted to proceed, he quickly covers the 
gentleman's cattle yard with the blood of his patients; notwith- 
standing it was evident, that starvation had previously robbed them 
of by far too much of this necessary ingredient in the animal eco- 
nomy; and although he copies i)octor Sangrado no further in his 
practice, his drenches are equally as destructive to the poor ani- 
mals, as copious draughts of warm water to a man in a dropsy. 
However, this shortens the gentleman's troubles, and the pain of the 
sufferers, by putting a speedier end to their existence. But he has 
to pay well for this, as the doctor is really well skilled in forming 
his bills to suit the pocket of his employer. 

The study of the anatomy and diseases of domesticated animals, 
should form a part of the necessary qualifications of every student 
of medicine. 

The health and preservation of these useful animals, are closely 
connected with the comfort and happiness of man ; and it would be 
honourable as well as highly important, to rescue them from the 
hands of those, who, if they were disposed to be better taught, have 
it not in their power to obtain the necessary information. 

Much might be done towards effecting this valuable purpose, with- 
out visiting the animals, except in very complicated and dangerous 
cases ; as a rational description of the obvious symptoms, would 
generally enable the physician to prescribe proper remedies. 

Two cases, in point, happened to myself, the first, a three year 
old ox, which had been too hard worked, after being in a plentiful 
pasture of young and tender grass. He was taken with an excessive 
scouring, which soon terminated in frequent and very painful dis- 
charges of mucus mixed with blood, very offensive to the smell; 
and the animal appeared to be in imminent danger. His case was 
briefly stated in a note to Doctor Dewees, who ordered a drench 
of six ounces of castor oil and half an ounce of laudanum. This 
was to be repeated if necessary; but the first dose cuied the ox. 

The second case was a spirited mare. She had been worked in 
the forenoon, and evidently much abused by a thoughtless driver. 
It was also believed that some nerve or nerves had been severely 
wounded by an inconsiderate stroke, especially as the marks of se- 
veral severe strokes appeared. Be this, however, as it may, a lock-jaw 
ensued in the afternoon, attended with a stiffness in her limbs, an 
unnatural distention of her nostrils, with spasmodic affections in 
her cheeks, neck, sides and flanks, which produced a powerful com- 



457 

motion in the parts affected. Her jaws were so firmly clinched, that 
no force which it was considered prudent to apply, was capable of 
moving them. She was very restless, often lay down and rose 
again in a short time; and although very desirous to drink, the 
spasms rendered swallowing impossible. 

Every assistance that could be devised, was carefully administer- 
ed, until the forenoon of the ensuing day, at which time she became 
unable to rise, and appeared to be in the agonies of death. Howe- 
ver, to get rid of what I then thought, the useless importunity of one 
of my family, Doctor Dewees was again consulted. He observed, 
Doctor Rush had informed him that he had cured a horse of the 
lock-jaw, by dashing cold water plentifully over him ; and remark- 
ed, that as the case was desperate, he would advise this to be done. 
With the assistance of several men the mare was set on her feet, 
and with considerable difficulty, conducted to a well near at hand, 
thirty or perhaps forty bucketsful of cold water were dashed with 
every possible despatch on her head, neck, back, buttocks, sides 
and belly, so that no part of her body escaped a profuse bathing. 
But little, if any, good effect appeared from the first bathing. It 
was repeated in about two hours, or perhaps less, and it was then 
thought that the clinching of the jaws was a little relaxed. This 
gave encouragement to try a third, and before that was finished,- 
she began to bite the grass growing near to her, but her jaws were 
not yet sufficiently relaxed to permit proper chewing, or the spasms 
so far subsided as to admit swallowing Hunger, however, urged her 
to a continued nibbling at the grass, although it fell out of her moutli 
without mastication. A fourth bathing enabled her to chew and 
swallow, and the next day she appeared to be well, but rather thin 
and hollow. It is now more than three years since this happened, 
and the mare has been as healthy and active as she was before the 
lock-jaw took place. During the intervals of the baths, and for two 
or three days after she recovered, she was kept covered with a 
blanket ; but as it was thought grass would be better for her than 
hay, she was not put into the stable. 

It is highly important, especially in this country, where labour is 
scarce, that a gentleman should not encounter an extensive farm, 
as neither pleasure, profit nor reputation is to be expected from 
such an undertaking; but as this opinion is immediately opposed to 
that of the celebrated \rthur Young, and those who have adopted 
his plans, it is considered best to show, that this practice is not only 
very injurious in this country, but also in England, where labour is 
plenty. 

In fact it would seem that notwithstanding the taxes have been 
very high, and consequently very injurious to the agriculture of that 
country, the uniting several farms into one, and letting these ex- 
tensive establishments to such farmers, or, as Mr. Young calls them, 
" gentlemen" who can command large capitals, has been more in- 
jurious to the husbandry of Great Britain, than the increase of the 
taxes, of which the raonopolizin-i; farmers in that country solouldly 



458 

complain. Tlje cause seems to be evident, for neither the gentle- 
man who occupies the farm, nor any part of his family, labours. 
On the contrary, he hires a bailiff to overlook the workmen, and 
superintend the business of the farm. Of this, Mr. Young observes, 
that " unless a gentleman reduces his business to very great sim- 
plicity, he will find too great fjitigue and too constant assiduity 
requisite, to render farming of considerable profit. Keeping all 
the people employed strictly to their bargains ; overlooking the 
servants as to their hours of ploughing and other work, and like- 
wise the manner every thing is done in, with a variety of other arti- 
cles, require an unceasing attendance: no gentleman that keeps 
any company, or indeed that amuses himself with any thing besides 
his business, can perform it, and he must employ a bailiff whatever 
be his opinion :"* also that " a gentleman who does not employ a 
person of this sort must, so far from rendering his business a plea- 
sure, submit to it as a slave. He must be absent from home no 
more than the lowest farmer; and he must at all seasons, hours 
and weathers, attend to every motion of his people. He must ride 
about the country to fairs, he must frequent markets ;t in a word, 
he must let himself down to the low^est company, and if he has the 
least taste or ideas of a gentleman, suffer continual uneasiness."^ 
Here I would ask who is the gentleman that Mr. Young thus ad- 
vises ? is he the owner of this extensive farm .'^ No, he has to pay 
a high rent to the proprietor of the soil, with the addition of very 
heavy taxes ; and but too frequently makes expensive alterations 
or improvements, before the premises meet his extensive, and too 
often mistaken, ideas of profit and convenience. 

Can Mr. Young seriously expect that the gentleman's bailiff will, 
at " all seasons, /iOMrs and weathers, attend to every motion of his peo- 
ple }" This is not likely to happen, especially as he remarks, that 
" the idea common in most countries is, that of nine bailiffs out of 
ten being knaves ; which notion could not become general without 
some foundation in truth."|| But in fact it is not to be expected 
that even an honest and industrious bailiff or farmer, who superin- 
tends his own business, " will, at all seasons, hours and weathers, 
attend to every motion of the people under his care." Neither is 
this necessary, except on some particular occasions; for when it is 
known that the gentleman gives proper attention to his business, 
and knows what may and ought to be done, his workmen will re- 
spect his talents, and soon be convinced that an attempt to deceive 
liim, would terminate in their being detected and exposed. 

* See his Kiiral Economy, pag'e 103. 

f Mr. Young- cannot mean the mai-ket where provision is huckstered out for 
tamily use. It must be the cattle, corn markets, &c. to which he alludes, for 
lie observes in his Rural Economy, page 123, " a bailiff has a greater opportu- 
nity of buying and selling, than in any other business, for which reason, that 
part of his business should be as much contracted as possible ;" and to prevent 
this evil, whenever it can be done, he advises, that " as soon as the whole crop 
is threshed out, it should be sold by one sample." 

^ See his Ilural Economy, page 100. J Idem, page 99. 



459 

If the gentleman's previous habits, or the love of " company," or 
as it is sometimes termed, a cheerful glass of wine, unfits him for 
the other attentions enumerated by Mr. Young, it would be far bet- 
ter to vest his capital, and employ his talents in some business that 
would allow him more leisure, and yield him a more extensive profit 
than is to be rationally expected from farming. 

What may, or may not be the " taste or ideas of a gentleman," 
is of but little consequence, so far as the interest of agriculture be 
concerned. But it is certainly paying no compliment, either to the 
talents, prudence, or propensities of a gentleman, to say that because 
" he must ride to fairs, and frequent markets," " he must" also " let 
himself down to the lowest company." However, as it is thought 
that a gentleman " lets himself down" if he attends to his own 
business, high wages are given to a man that can do it for him, and 
who, (" it is twenty to one," if Mr. Young be correct,) will also 
cheat him roundly into the bargain. The gentleman's family must 
also be genteelly clothed and fed ; his children genteelly educated; 
wine, with attendance on cattle shows, plough races, &c. are also 
very serious items in rural economy. Whereas the plain practical 
farmer not only sees to his own business, but also labours himself, 
and is assisted by every member of his family, not excepting his 
younger children, so soon as they are capable of doing any thing 
useful. In fact the difference in expense between the two estab- 
lishments, seems to be more than equal to the rent of the soil ; if 
so, the owners of land in England, by establishing a middle grade 
of gentry between themselves and the people who labour on their 
lands, act unwisely. 

But notwithstanding this heavy and worst of all taxes, that has 
yet been saddled on the backx>f the husbandry of England, to wit: 
a numerous tribe of idle hands, with mouths and backs to be expen- 
sively fed and clothed, great improvements were made in agriculture 
during the long state of warfare, in which that country had been 
involved previously to the late general peace. Although it would 
seem that many of these improvements were too expensive to be 
profitable, when peace and a free commercial intercourse with 
other nations, should reduce the price of the products of the soil, 
nearer to a level with the current prices of the rest of the world, it 
appears that the monopolizers of farms acted as speculators gene- 
rally do, especially when playing a new and untried game. That 
is, they did not sufficiently consider the natural consequence of 
these wild speculations, nor what must sooner or later certainly 
happen ; and as farms were diligently sought after, rents rose in 
proportion to the increased demand. However, the fleets, armies 
and colonies of England required immense supplies of provisions, 
and as large armies were kept up, with rapine and destruction 
marking their footsteps, in other parts of the globe, the English 
farmer readily obtained an exorbitant price for the products of his 
farm. This fallacious appearance of an increased profit on hus- 
bandry, seemed generally to confirm Mr. Young's opinions, that 
extensive farms were by far the most profitable ; not only to those 



460 

who cultivated them, but likewise to the nation and the proprietors 
of the soil : also, that common farmers are " the viost contracted 
and most ignorant set of people in the world ;"* they '• love to 
grope in the dark : it is the business of superior minds, to start 
beyond the age and shine forth, to dissipate the night that involves 
them :"t " to suppose them what tliey ought to be, and always urge 
them accordingly, would at last be nothing more than hewing blocks 
with a razor."! From this and Mr. Young's writings generally, wc 
may see the very contemptuous opinion he entertains of the talents 
of common farmers, and also how highly he estimates his own. Yet 
this gentleman has bound up, and published with his Rural Econo- 
my, " The Rural Socrates, or a description of the economical con- 
duct of a country philosopher ;" the self-taught Kliyogg, a farmer 
in Switzerland, whose economy, superior management and unas- 
suming talents, do honour to that class of people, whom Mr. Young 
endeavours to degrade lower than any other " set of people in the 
world." 

Mr. Young should have recollected before he made this unfound- 
ed assertion, that he had elsewhere said " the most valuable dis- 
coveries that have been made in philosophy and mechanics, have 
been the effect of chance ; a lesson, by the by, not a little humiliat- 
ing to the human mind.''j| Now, if this be the case, the plain prac- 
tical farmer, who is personally acquainted with every thing that is 
done on his farm, must have a far better opportunity of observing, 
and profiting by whatever chance may happen to unfold, than the 
man of science, or the gentleman farmer, who is not as actively 
engaged, or as intimately acquainted with the various occurrences 
that take place on a farm. Be this, however, as it may, I do not 
recollect a single useful practice in husbandry, that originated in 
science or in gentleman farming. That gentlemen have made im- 
provements on practices that had already been discovered, 1 am 
ready to acknowledge, but that plain practical farmers have done 
the same, is equally obvious.§ 

But to return. I o forward the views of the ministry, the purse 
strings of England were liberally opened to her allies on the conti- 
nent, which, with other enormous expenditures, compelled them to 
negotiate extensive loans J tliis caused the paper currency to depre- 
ciate considerably However, it was plenty, and«farmers felt but 
little inconvenience from the depreciation until after the general 
peace. After peace was establisned, government no longer wanted 
extensive supplies, and business generally was greatly depressed in 
consequence of the sudden change; grain was also introduced from 
foreign countries, where it could be grown much cheaper than in 
England. These occurrences, as might and ought to have been ex- 

* See his Uural Economy, page 92. f Idem, page 22. 

+ Idem, i-age 51. |( Idem, page 182. 

§ Witness Mr. Ducket, who is notliing more nor less, than a good, plain, prac- 
tical farmer, and yet Mr Young quotes his practice when addressing the British 
Board of Agricullure, on a subject highly interesting to the agriculture of tbj»i 
counti"v. 



461 

pected, greatly reduced the prices of the product of the soil, and 
caused many farmers to fail, and others to be severely injured. 

It is said by a writer in the Farmer's Journal,* that " it had been 
fully demonstrated to the several committees of the lords and com- 
mons, that an averse of eighty shillings per quarter of wheat, was 
requisite to remuJHate the grower in this country ;" that is ten 
shillings sterling, or two dollars twenty-two cents per bushel.* 
By another writer it is observed, " Look at the present state of 
the English market, they," that is foreigners, " undersell us in our 
own market, peace appears to have put us in a situation we could 
not have expected ; we could not have believed that grain might be 
grown on the continent at half the price we can grow it in our own 
country."! Another writer says, " The foreign agriculturist is re- 
ally so much against the English farmer, that the latter cannot bring 
the product of his own soil, and in his own market, at one-half the 
price that even a Frenchman can supply us." 

From these quotations, and many hundreds of publications on this 
subject, it clearly appears to be a well substantiated fact, that the 
British agriculturist cannot afford to bring the products of his own 
soil into his own market, at any thing like as low prices as it can be 
done by foreigners. 

It also seems that this is in England a surprising event ; likewise, 
that the cause is not well understood. For it is said, " peace ap- 
pears to have put us in a situation we could not have expected ; wc 
could not have believed that grain might be grown on the continent 
at half the price we can grow it in our own country." 

If peace had placed the British agriculturist in the situation of 
which he complains, the same cause would have produced thu^ same 
effects in other countries ; but the fact is simply this : the increased 
taxes, and the rise in rent, together with the creation of a middle 
grade of gentry, to be extravagantly maintained by the products of 
the soil, are the causes that produced this "surprising" effect. The 
most obnoxious of the increased taxes have been removed, and the 
rise in rent will be abated, so soon as the owners of lands are con- 
vinced that they must lie idle unless this be done. Still if I am 
not much mistaken, it will be found that foreigners, whose rents 
and taxes are not higher than the rents and taxes in England, will 
be able to undersell the cultivators of that country, in their own 
markets, while husbandry is saddled with the maintenance of the 
late created middle grade of gentry, or monopolizers of farms. 
However, of this great evil, or enormous tax, I hare neither seen 
any thing written, nor heard any thing said, nor even hinted, except 
by one plain practical farmer. As what he advances on the present 
distressed situation of the agriculture of that country appears to be 
the result of long practice, and very judicious observation, I will 
transcribe a part of his communication published in the Farmer's 
Journal.^ This gentleman says, "The situation of the agricultu- 

• Published in London 22d January, 1816. f Idem, 21th June, 1 816. 
' Published in London, IJtli May, 1816. 



462 

rist not having been taken up in any way that I have seen, which 
states the true cause, I will, although totally unused to writing, 
venture, from calculations taken from my own practice for fifty 
years, to give my own opinion thereon, and state the only immedi- 
ate relief that 1 think can be given. 

" In the early part of my life, my rent vari|jMU)ut little, indeed I 
had no advance until the last seven years, tIto when I sold my 
wheat at five shillings and six pence a bushel," equal to one dollar 
twenty two cents, '* and which I did for thirty years prior to the 
year 1795, 1 was making from twelve to fourteen per cent, of my 
capital. 1 have since been advanced more than double, and the last 
two years and a half been losing more than the advance, in addition 
to the reduction in the price of stock ; and as my landlord seems 
not disposed to allow an abatement accordingly, I am leaving the 
business, at least all the land I rent, seeing nothing but ruin before 
me ; but if my landlord would reduce the rent to the same price as 
before, and accordingly as lands in general were let twenty years 
ago, I am sure I would go on without loss at the present price of 
corn, and indeed with a moderate gain, although many assert the 
prices will pay nothing towards rent ; but not to drink wine at six 
shillings a bottle, what was never intended for those who have to 
live by their industry only, or to keep a first rate hunter, but to 
drink good potent malt liquor." <' All classes, except the poor, have 
benefited by the times, and now the causes are done away, all 
should bear their proportion, and retrencii accordingly. I am no 
theorist or politician, but having always understood, that our secu- 
rity depends on our wooden walls, I do not see how they can be 
supported without commerce, and that raising the price of pro- 
visions by bounties, &c. will not increase our commerce, or set the 
hundreds of thousands of manufacturers to work now out of em- 
ploy" 

Wine at six shillings sterling per bottle is about equal to the 
average value of a bushel of wheat, but it is not only the cost of 
this article, and a first rate hunter which are to be estimated, as 
uniformity requires that other expenditures should be regulated by 
the same scale: consequently they cannot be consistent with the 
economy that ought to be practised by a renter of land in any 
country. 

Mr. Young says, "To have every thing complete and well con- 
trived for mutual support, a farm must be a large one. But here 
I am sensible of the disadvantage of moving upon untrodden ground, 
and I feel at every step the want of former writers, to take warn- 
ing by their mistakes: nor is it any mortification to me to think 
that my humble labours will, in future times, be no more than 
a canvass for others to paint on. I shall at least be a canvass, 
which is more than any other writer is to me."* 

• See his Rural Economy, page 13, The pencil of time is generally most 
correct; and no question but it will do ample justice to Mr. Young's canvass 
OP plans. 



463 

Now it appears that the owners of lands, and also the monopo- 
lizers of farms, have followed this gentleman "upon untrodden 
ground." As the quagmire and quicksands were hidden by a de- 
ceptive covering, the guide as well as his followers have stuck fast in 
the mire: also, that he either has not candour sufficient to advise 
his followers to retrace their steps, or does not know tliat this 
ought to be done, seems to be evident from the following observa- 
tions made in the Farmer's Journal. The writer says, "In your 
Journal of the 22d ult. is a letter from Mr. Arthur Young, to which, 
as it appears to have been written for the information of your town 
readers, 1 have paid some little attention. From Mr. Young I na- 
turally looked for argument, and it was by no means too much to 
expect from him something which would throw light on a subject 
so much discussed. All I can learn from Mr. Young, is, that in 
the years 1812 and 1813 the farmers received good prices for corn, 
and were well oft*; therefore, if by some means or other, produce 
can be screwed up to the same nominal pitch, all will again be right." 
•' After all Mr. Young's laudable exertions for the improvement and 
extension of our agriculture, he can scarcely suppose that other 
nations would send corn and undersell us, unless some great ad- 
vantage was on the side of the foreign grower." " Mr. Young 
confirms what we have been so often told of the great increase of 
the poor rate, but he must investigate cause and effect much deeper 
before he convinces his town readers that this has happened du- 
ring a period in which, according to common ideas, they ought to 
have fallen greatly." " If I understand the latter part of Mr. 
Young's letter, he recommends, with Mr. Western, "increasing 
the cultivation of the kingdom by the issue of exchequer bills. 
This will assuredly form a new era in the annals of agriculture. 
Such a mass of contradiction has this question called forth, that 
I really cannot in any way reconcile such jarring opinions without 
supposing the real truth is carefully kept in the back ground."* 

It would seem that Mr. Young considers about 1400 acres of 
land no more than sufficient "to have everything complete and 
well contrived for mutual support." Also, that a large farm may 
be cultivated with much less expense than a small one in propor- 
tion to the size. Now, as common sense, observation and practice 
clearly determine that the reverse of this is true, it is difficult to 
imagine how this irrational theory has obtained such general credit 
with the owners of land in England. 

This gentleman admits that there is such a thing as a proper 
proportion in a small, as well as in a large, farm. If he did not, 
the fact would not be less true, as theories cannot alter the nature 
of things. 

It requires two horses to plough: consequently a less number of 
acres than can be properly cultivated by a pair of draught cattle, 
would insure a useless expense. Hov/ever, as I have no practical 

* See Farmer's Journal, published in London May 20, 1816. 



464 

acquaintance with the economy of a farm that requires but two 
horses, I cannot judge so well of the advantages or disadvantages 
of so small an establishment, but believe it has been found to an- 
swer a very valuable purpose with those whose capital would not 
admit them to extend their views further. Practice, as well as ob- 
servation, induces me to believe, that as much land as can be well 
cultivated by four horses may be managed as advantageously as any 
other given number of acres; and no question with much less 
expense, in proportion to size, than a farm of 1400 acres. The 
reasons are so very obvious, that it really seems not only strange 
but wonderful, that any farmer possessing common sense should be 
of a contrary opinion. Supposing a farm of 1400 acres to be square, 
and the buildings, cattle yard, &c. erected in the centre it, the dis- 
tance from the centre to the extremities on either side of the farm 
would be nearly three times further than from the centre of a 
square of 120 acres to the lines on either side of it: consequently 
each ploughman, labourer, ploughhorse, &c. has to travel on an 
average three times as far in going to, and returning from, their 
work on the larger farm. Every load of manure, grain, hay, &c. 
is also to be hauled nearly three times as far; the draught cattle, 
milch cows, &c. are to be driven nearly three times as far, both to 
and from pasture. The sheep and other live stock in distant fields, 
as well as the crops growing on them, and which may be greatly 
injured by cattle breaking into them, require much more time, and 
of course expense, to watch and take proper care of them. When 
the farmer's live stock, fields of grain, &c. lie near to his dwelling, 
they are so often seen in the usual routine of his business, that it 
is but seldom necessary to pay any very particular attention to 
them. His labourers are few, except it be in hay time and harvest: 
therefore he can generally be with them. If he be a plain practical 
farmer, it frequently happens that himself and his family do nearly 
all the work that is done on the farm, except when hay and grain 
are to be cut and secured. In this case, his expense for labour is 
so trivial that he scarcely feels it. He also escapes much of the 
trouble arising from workmen; and the few he hires not only la- 
bour much more diligently, but also behave much better than they 
would do on a farm where a multitude of working people must be 
introduced, and where they corrupt each other. They also become 
better citizens from the orderly habits acquired by an intercourse 
with a respectable farmer's family. Whereas extensive farming 
establishments, like manufactories, are nurseries for vice: espe- 
cially when carried on by a gentleman; for the working people are 
not only numerous, but are also so far removed from an intercourse 
with his family, tlwit they derive little, or perhaps no benefit, from 
mixing with it.* Certain it is, that the poor rates in England have 

• Mr. Young says, in his Rural Economy, page 113, "A farmer who Uvea 
with his men, and, perhaps, works with them, will be always much better 
obeyed. This point, I must own, has troubled me more than once ; nor could 
I ever manage to be totally at ease respecting it. There is no part of farming 



465 

vtry greatly increased since large farming establishments have 
been generally formed in that country: also, that to degrade is to 
demoralize, and to demoralize is to make poor. Here it may be 
asked, if the farmer and his family in many cases, will be suffi- 
ciently numerous to perform the principal part of the labour done 
on the farm, except in hay time and harvest, what is to become of 
the suffering poor: to create no more is the best way that can be 
devised to get rid of them. But humanity demands that those who 
have been created by a bad system of management should be hu- 
manely supported in the most economical way that can be devised 
consistent with their feelings as men, and a plentiful supply. Such 
labour as they are capable of performing without opppression, they 
ought to do, for this will not only lessen the expense, but also add 
to their comfort, as idleness, without pleasing amusement, is an in- 
supportable burden. 

Here I will again remind the reader that I write in the back- 
woods, where books are not plenty. Therefore, have, in some in- 
stances, to depend on memory, which may not, in all cases, be ex- 
actly correct. If I recollect right, Sir J. Sinclair, in his writings 
on agriculture, does not approve of the large farming establishments 
recommended by Mr. Young, and quotes the small, but vo.ry per- 
fectly cultivated farms of Flanders and Brabant, to establish his 
opinion. However, as if led into error by the then seemingly pros- 
perous state of gentleman farming, he deviates widely from the ru- 
ral economy of Brabant and Flanders ; for if my memory be correct, 
he admits that even larger farms than were recommended by Mr. 
Young, might be advantageously cultivated. But I trust enough has 
been advanced to convince the gentleman farmer in this country, 
and it is him that I mean to instruct, that one hundred or one hundred 
and twenty acres of cleared ground would form a far more produc- 
tive farm, in proportion to size and capital ; especially as he must 

so irksome and provoking' to a gentleman ; he cannot take a walk or ride with- 
out having proofs that every farmer around him has more -work for his money 
than he has." This single circumstance should have taught Mr. Young who 
were the men best calculated to cultivate the soil advantageously, if, in place 
of being abused, they -were kindly and rationally instructed in the genuine 
principles of rural economy. It is evident, that in a very important part of the 
economy of farming, this gentleman is compelled to confess, that the very 
men who he says " love to grope in the dark," manage infinitely better than 
those " superior mmds, who start beyond the age and shine forth to dissipate 
the night that involves them." But, unfortunately for the interests of agricul- 
ture, (especially as Mr. Youngf's opinions seem to have too long governed the 
farming world,) he appears to have seen the management of the plain practi- 
cal farmer with a jaundiced eye, and " irksome" and "provoking" sensations 
are excited by the laudable enterprise of these men, merely because the na- 
ture of things is not changed to further his inconsiderate plans : for the prac- 
tice and observation of ages clearly determine, that this change must take 
place before a gentleman who hires another to superintend his labourers, will 
get any thing like as much work done for the same money, as the man who 
diligently attends to, and sees after, his own business himself; more especially 
if himseU'and his family labour with them. 

r, N 



466 

have seen that no people under the sun are so independent as the 
thrifty practical farmers in those parts of the United States, wher^j 
slavery has been abolished : also that their farms seldom exceed 
one hundred and twenty acres of cleared land. Likewise, that the 
principal part of the labour done on the farm, is performed by the 
farmer and his family, except in time of grain and hay harvests, 
when they are sufficiently numerous to accomplish this invaluable 
purpose. 

Mr. Young's zeal to get rid of common farmers, whom he consi- 
ders the "most ignorant set of people in the world," and to enlist 
the gentleman whose talents he highly appreciates, might have in- 
duced him to imagine there were advantages in a large farm which 
did not exist. Also, too hastily to pass over the very great mass of 
extra labour that is necessarily introduced by greatly increasing 
the distance from the centre to the extremities of a farm; especially 
as he acknowledges that he is " moving on untrodden ground," and 
must have known full well that the previous habits of the gentle- 
tleman and his family were such, that they could not live on the 
neat clear income of a farm for which a considerable rent and taxes 
must be paid, unless the size of it was very extensive. But it is 
difficult to devise, why Mr. Young should, among other imaginary 
'• economical" arrangements of this extensive system of" economy" 
recommend, that " two oxen should be constantly kept at cart the 
whole year round, with small three wheeled carts, in carrying out 
dung, clay, composts, &c."* Of this part of his " economical" ma- 
iiagement, and other '• economy" connected with it, he observes, " I 
allowed one team for carting dung, the year round, and extras of 
cattle to the amount of another. A team and two small three wheel- 
ed carts will carry, at an average, thirty loads a day, or rather half 
loads, as these carts do not hold above half a load ; that is, when 
the drive is not long ; in other cases, larger carts are to be used, and 
the teams thrown together. In the whole, it is sixty small loads per 
day, or thirty common ones."t And again he says " the small 
three wheeled tumbrils are so extremely handy, that a man and a 
lad will manage two sets of them."! 

It would seem from this complex and very expensive manage- 
ment, but as we are taught to believe, very simple and "economi- 
cal" arrangement'of a large farm " well contrived for mutual sup- 
port," that '* when the drive is not long" twelve wheels fixed to 
four carts, each drawn by cue ox, are to haul four half loads, but 
when the drive is long, the teams are doubled, and two large 
carts, each hauling a full load, are used, and that in this case, two 
carts with only four wheels, are made to haul as much as would be 
hauled to the same distance, and in the same time, by the same 
oxen, with twelve wheels fixed to four carts. Thus, six carts, hav- 
ing sixteen wheels, are provided to be used by two pair of oxen ; 

* See his Rural Economy, page 15. | Idem, page 29 and SO. 
t Idem, page 32. 



467 

•consequently, this "economical" arrangement, saddles the farm 
with the useless expense of four useless carts, having in the whole, 
twelve useless wheels. 

Now if plain practical farmers were to employ six carts having 
sixteen wheels, and as it also too often happens, expensive harness 
in place of yokes and bows, to do the same work that might be as 
soon and as well done by two carts with only four wheels, Mr. 
Young might, with some apparent propriety, assert, that they were 
the " most ignorant set of people in the world." But in fact, such 
preposterous arrangements are only to be found in the annals of 
gentleman farming, where it must be confessed, practices equally as 
absurd, are very much multiplied. 

There is just as much use for a third wheel to a cart, as there is 
for a fifth wheel to a coach. The only rational argument in favour 
of one horse carts, is, that the animal is placed nearer to his load. 
However, a curricle furnishes principles by which two horses may 
be fixed as near to their load in a cart, as one, and with much less 
expense than adding a third wheel to it. The third wheel places 
the horse further from his load, and causes more friction : conse- 
quently, more resistance, and increases the price of the cart. An 
ox will haul more when a moderate weight rests on his neck, so will 
also a horse when the same rests on his back. But it should be re- 
membered that this weight becomes burdensome, unless it be mo- 
derate. 

There are many gentlemen in this country, who possess exten- 
sive landed estates, and still many more who own much more land 
than can be profitably cultivated by them. If those gentleman, in 
place of copying the practice of too many of the owners of land in 
England, would be content to cultivate a small farm, and set the 
example of strict economy in every department of agriculture, while 
they at the same time, endeavoured to introduce the best plants, 
with the best cultivation and practices that are to be found in the 
country, no question but it would be the means of getting their 
estates highly improved, with but little expense or trouble to them- 
selves. But, if they hope to succeed, their first efforts should be 
to remove the prejudice that generally exists among plain practical 
farmers, (and not without cause,) against the useless as well as un- 
profitable and sometimes ruinous expense, which is but too com- 
monly attached to, and closely interwoven with, the economy of 
gentleman farming. This may, however, be readily effected by ob- 
serving an opposite mode of management. Every department of 
the farm should exhibit the evident marks of simple rural economy. 
To prevent the idea that it derived even the smallest assistance 
from his family establishment, I would advise, that the servants 
and horses kept for the use of the family, be not, on any occasion, 
suffered to assist in the business done on the farm. 

If such establishments were formed and properly conducted, in 
the different parts of the country, where gentlemen possessed con- 
siderable landed estates, they would not only supersede the pat- 



468 

tern farms which have been projected, but also far exceed any plan 
of that kind which has yet been proposed. As they would reduce 
to actual practice, the best as well as the most economical and pro- 
fitable modes of management: for these establishments would be 
numerous, and the owners of them might, to a certain distance, rea- 
dily correspond with each other, and form such plans, that but few 
valuable plants, or economical and profitable practices, would escape 
their united attention. 

Agriculture cannot be profitably improved by the cultivation of 
very extensive farms, for which, the gentleman must depend more 
on the practice and observation of his bailiff, than can be consistent 
with obtaining correct economical information of this interesting 
employment. Neither can it be profitably improved by the intro- 
duction of extensive flocks of the improved breeds of domesticated 
animals, purchased at exorbitant prices, to stock a large farm ; nor 
by numerous complex and expensive implements of husbandry; 
nor by the splendid exhibitions at cattle shows, sheep shearings and 
plough races. These may display the splendour and mniiificence 
of the opulent, without any serious injury to them; but must at the 
same time greatly injure gentlemen of s1p»»<'c> fortune; especially, 
as by far too many of the lattpr class of cultivators endeavour to 
equal, or surpass the rich. In fact, these practices, like fox hunting 
and horseracing, are well calculated to introduce such idle, expen- 
sive and dissipated habits as are entirely inconsistent with the eco- 
nomy of farming. 

But as the eifects produced by these and many other injurious 
practices introduced by gentleman farming, are now very seriously 
felt in England, there is reason to hope that gentlemen will ere long 
discover, that to have the fruits of the earth in abundance, and at 
such reasonable prices as will insure the prosperity of agriculture, 
manufactures and commerce, the cultivators of the soil, must be 3 
hardy, active, laborious, intelligent and independent race of men; 
and that if gentlemen attempt to employ their superior means of 
obtaining more extensive information in instructing these men, it 
should be done in that way which is best calculated to confirm their 
habits of economy, and also direct the application of these econo- 
mical principles to objects of rational improvement, well calculated 
to reduce expense and to increase the revenue of their farms. 



CHAPTER XLVII. 

On deep ploughing. Doctor Anderson's mode of planting potatoes consider- 
ed. Remarks on purchasing and rearing cattle. Very great advantages are 
obtained by keeping correct fanning accounts. How those accounts may 
be kept with but little writing or trouble. The great use of keeping a re- 
gular diary explained. 

J. HE gentleman farmer is justly taught to believe, that the farmers 
in this country, generally plough too shallow ; but, unfortunately, 
he is also instructed to run into the contrary extreme. He is taught 
to trench plough a worn out soil, for the express purpose of improv- 
ing it ; than which, nothing can be more erroneous. However, this 
does no very serious injury to the crops, so far as a sufficiency 
of enriching manure has been spread ; but where his soil is thin, 
and enriching manure has not been applied, the crops, as well as 
the soil, are greatly injured by this very inconsiderate practice. 

Some very whimsical as well as very injurious occurrences have 
originated in this silly practice. A gentleman with whom I was 
well acquainted, from a fatal error either in his reading or me- 
mory, ploughed in his seed wheat so deep that none of it came 
up, except some scattering plants between the seams of the furrow 
slices. An old full bred farmer, whose land adjoined the gentle- 
man's grounds, observing what the ploughmen were doing, ventur- 
ed to call and inform him that the wheat would not come up. The 
gentleman treated him very politely, and wine with other liquors 
were introduced. But at the same time frankly informed him that 
the farmers in this country did not understand agriculture, and that 
he had resolved to introduce and recommend British husbandry 
by his practice among them. The farmer, of course, never ventured 
after this, to advise his wiser neighbour, on any future occasion. 
However, the gentleman, as might be expected, soon became tired 
of farming, and removed back to town. 

I was also informed that another gentleman, not far from my 
former residence, whose ploughmen were none of the best, was re- 
solved to introduce, what he supposed to be, British husbandry. 
But finding that deep ploughing occasioned crooked work, actually 
stretched a line to govern them in turning each furrow slice. This 
appears to be tedious work, but when the pocket is full, and the 
scull rather empty of agricultural information, or the brain affected 
by the sudden change from the confined adr of the city, to the pure 
air of the country, folly too often predominates, even in the heads 
of wise and well informed men, who are capable of transacting any 



470 

kind of business with which they are practically acquainted, to the 
utmost possible advantage. 

I have before explained why a thin soil should not be ploughed 
deep. Whether English or American writers on husbandry have 
been most successful in propagating this injurious error among gen- 
tlemen farmers, is unknown to me. But I find a premium is offered 
in the first volume of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural 
Society, for " the greatest quantity of trench ploughed worn out land, 
not less than five acres. The trenching not less than ten inches 
deep ;" "manure admitted ; but the best products, with the least 
artificial manure, will be preferred."* 

Mr.-Caleb Kirk, a plain practical farmer, ventured to observe, 
that, " as to trench ploughing, I am fully of opinion twelve inches 
is a depth too great to bury a scanty soil, except the farmer has a 
great store of manure to dress his fields after ploughing."! I know 
nothing of Mr. Kirk, but this opinion will stand the test of reason 
and practical observation. However, Judge Peters, in his remarks 
on Mr. Kirk's communication, says, " turning down fertile vegeta- 
ble mould, would be a most reprehensible operation. It is there- 
fore only to worn and infested fields, that I ever recommended the 
application of this practice." " I could never prevail on a tenant 
to trench plough, though he enjoyed the advantages of my labour 
and expense. 1 am therefore, neither surprised or mortified by 
Mr. Kirk's disapprobation.":^ Now the question is, who would the 
uninformed gentleman believe ^ Certainly the President ; especi- 
ally as he couples Mr. Kirk, and of consequence his talents, with 
his tenants, whom he often informs us, farm wretchedly, and whom, 
he also tells us in the same page, he " always far exceeds in pro- 
ducts." However, it is worthy of remark, that Mr. Peters must 
have been very unfortunate in the selection of his tenants, or 
Ihe whole of them could not be so stupid, as to neglect the many 
advantages which he says are to be derived from trench ploughing 
poor soils ; especially as they had a full opportunity of observing 
the profitable result of his practice, and might, if I understand him, 
have " enjoyed tlyfe advantages of his labour and expense," in this 
very profitable enterprise. 

If the reader, however, will peruse what is said in the first vo- 
lume of the Memoirs, on trench ploughing, I believe he will agree 
with me, that it seems as if the President had, in the commence- 
ment of this wild scheme, expected to make poor land rich, by 
'•burying the old soil," which he very e'Toneously says, is " ex- 
iiausted of every fertilizing quality ;" and also destroying, as he 
inconsiderately terms them, " the seeds of pestiferous weeds, and 
indestructible stocks and roots, with the bulbs and seeds of garlic, 
St. John's wort and the daisy, and otiipr such otherwise unconquer- 
able hosts of foes to his culture of profitable crops ;"|| but being 

i 

* See said vol. pages 37, S9. t I<?-era, pag^e 85. ^ Idem, pages241, 242. 
!! Idem, pag-e 240. 



471 

disappointed in this irrational undertaking, he has abandoned the 
ruinous project. 

That he has been disappointed clearly appears, as in the second 
volume of the Memoirs, we find him busily engaged in destroying, 
as he calls them, " pestiferous^ unconquerable, indestructible bulbs, 
and hosts oi foes to his culture of profitable crops," which in des- 
pite of his ill judged efforts had again taken possession of at least 
one of his fields that had been trench ploughed. And we also find 
him, in the second and third volumes of Memoirs, ploughing only 
from five, to seven inches deep. 

But unfortunately for gentlemen, they are incapable in the com- 
mencement of their career, of tracing error, and before they have 
run the extensive and severe gauntlet of gentleman farming, they 
are commonly so severely " lashed," that they too generally tire 
or faint by the way. 

Thus agriculture is not only stripped of the talents, enterprise 
and capital of men, who, if they had been well informed, would 
have done honour to their newly adopted profession ; but it is brand- 
ed with being the cause of all the losses, crosses and mortifying dis- 
appointments, that may have happened to the gentleman while he 
was engaged in rural pursuits. In fact, 

" The farm is charg'd with ev'ry ill, 
Spring-ing from whence, or where it will ;" 
" That it brings ills enough, is true ; 
Not all — then ^ve the d 1 his due."* 

As Mr. Bordley says much of the evil arising from poaching the soil, 
also of the great advantages that may be derived from growing exten- 
sive crops of potatoes for fattening hogs, and speaks highly of the 
practice of plougning from and to plants, the gentleman in the com- 
mencement of his business is too commonly infatuated with Doctor 
Anderson's mode of planting and cultivating this roof; for it is really 
plausible, and a great increase is promised. The Doctor says, the 
ground should be well prepared, and the manure hauled and dropped 
on the* head lands. After the furrows have been formed three feet 
asunder for planting, to prevent the soil from being poached, he di- 
rects short rich manure to be carried by labourers in baskets, and 
spread in the bottom of the furrows, to supply nutriment for those 
roots which gather food for the plants. After this, the potato sets, 
weighing, if I recollect right, not less than t^vo ounces each, are ta 
be planted eighteen inches asunder, in the rows; and lest the bulbs 
which are to be formed on the fruit roots should be too much op- 
pressed with a heavy covering of soil, he directs the furrows to be 
filled with long light manure, consisting principally of .straw, and 
the soil to be spread so lightly over this covering of manure, that 
the straw may be seen peeping througli the covering of mould. I 

* Thes" lines are taken from a poem written by a gentleman, after he had 
run the gauntlet of gentleman farming. 



472 

do not recollect that the Doctor says that he ever planted potatoes 
in this way, and am disposed to believe that he never did, except in 
his garden, or he would have clearly seen that the expense neces- 
sarily arising from such a tedious and laborious process, would be 
entirely too great to admit the profitable introduction of his system 
of management on an extensive scale. However, be this as it may, 
it is certainly an ingenious plan, and if the Doctor had ordered the 
sets to be placed at nine, instead of eighteen inches asunder in the 
liirrows, and said nothing of ploughing from and to the plants, it is 
probable that a very considerable product might be obtained in this 
way. But ploughing from and to the plants greatly injures the 
roots which nature has provided to gather nutriment for them, and 
unless these operations cease before the fruit roots can be injured, 
they are less or more cut off', of consequence the crop is curtailed, in 
proportion to the injury done to these roots. As it is not to be ex- 
pected, that the gentleman, in the commencement of his business, 
can readily determine when the fruit roots are in danger, it is ten 
to one, but the crop be greatly injured from this cause alone. How- 
ever, if this last evil should be avoided, theroots on which the plants 
depend for their principal support will certainly be cut off, and the 
stubs of the roots left exposed to the injurious effects of the sun and 
air every time this truly inconsiderate operation is performed, con- 
sequently a great loss in the product will certainly occur ; therefore 
we may rationally conclude, that the gentleman's potato crops, ob- 
tained through the medium of this very tedious and very expensive 
practice, will not be equal to the crops grown by the full bred far- 
mer, with but little comparative labour, perplexity and expense. 

The purchase of live stock seems to be the most difficult business 
the gentleman has to encounter. The knowledge of their value and 
disposition to fatten, is only to be obtained by practice and attentive 
observation ; but this is not all, for when the farmer actually pos- 
sesses this knowledge, it will often be found a difficult task to pur- 
chase such as will pay him a moderate price for the food consumed 
by them, before they are fit for market. This being the case, the 
whole of the profits arising from a farm otherwise well conducted, 
are readily sunk in a mistaken purchase of the live stock necessary 
to consume the hay, grass, &c. grown on the place. Even after they 
have been judiciously purchased, if the management of them be not 
well conducted, the loss on them may be very considerable. 

It requires much less judgment to breed, rear, fatten and sell ; 
but this is impracticable where lands sell high, except soiling be 
practised, and the gentleman either happens to procure excellent 
breeds at fair prices, or takes a peculiar pleasure in improving the 
valuable properties of his own stock. Breeding and rearing stock, 
is the principal means by which the farmer in our extensive back 
settlements can procure a sufficiency of money to answer his pur- 
poses. An extensive range outside of his cleared grounds, generally 
furnishes his stock with sufficient food until snow covers the ground ; 
still he is but too seldom remunerated for the other provender con* 



473 

sumed by them, however his peculiar situation compels him to rear 
stock, and drive them to the older settlements ; also to sell them 
for much less money than it would cost the purchaser to rear tbem 
in the usual way. If this M'ere not done, the buyer would find it 
more ptofitable to rear his own stock. 

Here it may be proper to advise the gentleman, to be cautious 
how he engages in fattening cattle, &c. either on roots or grain ; 
for unless superior management is practised, it too often terminates 
in a very serious loss. 

Correct accounts are as necessary to the gentleman farmer as 
they are to iie merchant. They determine the expense of growing 
each crop, ai-) the profit or loss on each variety. This is of high 
import to the farmer, as it too frequently happens that some crops 
or animals are a perpetual sinking fund, when others might be rea- 
dily introduced which would be profitable. Much oats are grown 
on the grounds which are not further distant than about thirty miles 
from Philadelphia. As this plant, like Indian corn is capable of 
Contending with poverty, the cultivation of it has been continued 
on thin soils, although, if my calculations be correct, if an average 
price, together with the expense of hauling them to market be esti- 
mated, an average crop brings tlie cultivator considerably in debt. 
Now if this were Known, it is presumed that the farmer would either 
abandon the practice, and grow more productive plants, or by a 
better system of management introduce more nutriment for his oat 
crop. Very fat cattle, and luxuriant crops are also too frequently ob- 
tained by expensive practices which are entirely inconsistent with 
profit. The knowledge of this would certainly induce the reflect- 
ing farmer, either to introduce a better system of management, or to 
abandon the practices. 

FuUbred farmers too frequently sustain considerable losses in 
this way: yet many of them become wealthy, fur the profit arising 
on their own labour and that of their family, together with their 
general management and strict economy, greatly overbalance these 
losses: still, these errors should be rectified. I, therefore, advise 
every farmer, not excepting such as are barely capable of keeping 
accounts, so that they may be understood by themselves, to adopt 
this invaluable practice. 

The profit of farming greatly depends on the economical manage- 
ment of working cattle, with the implements immediately connect- 
ed with them. An account should be opened for teams, and charged 
with the cost of the horses and other working cattle ; also the wag- 
gon, carts, ploughs and other instruments connected with them ; 
likewise shoeing, and the grain, roots, hay, &c. consumed by them ; 
and at the end of the year with a proper per centage or premium 
for the risk of their lives. Perhaps less than five per cent, which 
seems to be the usual premium, would cover this risk on all kinds 
of live stock, if a full supply of nutritive matter be provided for 
them, and proper care be taken of them. A sum equal to such de- 
preciation in their value as may arise either from age or accident, 

30 



should also be charged: likewise, the annual wear and tear of carts, 
ploughs and other instruments connected with the use of the teams, 
together with an average interest on this account, which being pre- 
viously credited with the number of days the horses and oxen may 
have happened to work during the year, will determine the cost 
of a day's work done by one or more of them. The gentleman 
may rest assured that unless no more working cattle be kept 
than are absolutely necessary, and great economy be practised in 
the management of them, and the implements connected with them, 
the price of a day's work done by one or more of the horses or oxen, 
will so far exceed credibility with those who have not investigated 
this important subject, that I shall omit making the probable esti- 
mate, lest it might be supposed that it was not founded on facts that 
actually exist when the genuine principles of rural economy are 
not properly attended to in the whole of this complicated and ex- 
pensive arrangement. Yet no rational objection can be made against 
the mode of calculation that has been recommended, for the gen- 
tleman's money, well secured by mortgage, will produce legal in- 
terest, without being subject to either drawback or risk. An ac- 
count similar to that for the horses and working cattle, that is in 
every proper charge, will determine the expense a;.d cost of the 
animals reared or bought in for sale. The account of teams for the 
ensuing year, will of course be charged with the present actual value 
of the horses and oxen, together with the present actual value of 
the implements connected with them. 

The expense of each crop will be determined by charging it with 
the cost of cultivation, &c. Also, an average interest on the capital 
employed on it, together with a rent for the ground, equal to an an- 
nual interest, on the sum it cost per acre : this should be estimated 
by adding to the first cost of the farm, the cost of the necessary im- 
provements made to place the buildings, fields, fences, &c. in a 
proper condition for farming. But after the farm has been put into 
proper order, an account should be opened for the general expenses 
of it, such as keeping the buildings, fences. &c. in order, or such 
other charges as cannot be readily placed to the debit of any parti- 
cular cx'op, &.C. and after charging an annual average on this ac- 
count, the balance should be carried to the debit of profit and loss 
at the end of the year. The whole of the grass grounds for any one 
year, will require but one account, be the fields many or few. Aa 
account should also be opened for such implements of husbandry 
as are not connected with the teams, and their separate costs and 
repairs charged to it: also an annual average interest on the 
amount ; likewise the wear and tear of the implements. After this 
has been done, and credit given for the actual value of the imple- 
ments on hand, the balance should be carried to the debit of profit 
and loss. 

Here, it may be proper to observe that the necessity of averaging 
the length of time for which interest ought to be paid on the dit- 



475 

ferent accounts, naturally arises from the various expenditures ori- 
ginating at difterent distinct periods. 

The expenses of a farmer's family greatly ^epend on their habits : 
some spend too little, and others too much. It is, therefore, obvi- 
ous that the profit or loss of a farm cannot be fairly estimated, un- 
less the articles procured from it for family use, be charged to the 
"household expenses," and the board of the workmen be charged to 
the farm, at a price covering, but not exceeding the full cost of it, 
including a reasonable sum for wear and tear of bedding, &c. also 
interest on the cost. 

If regular double entry be pursued in farming accounts, they will 
be found excessively tedious, but this is useless. A few minutes in the 
evening, will suflBce for entering in a daybook the transactions of 
the day. Less than one day will be found sufficient to arrange and 
enter in the leger the transactions of the month. If the names of 
the several accounts which may be concerned, (except personal, 
for these, with a few other items must be separately entered,) 
be written on the upper edge of a sheet of paper, so that the number 
of days and the cost of the work both of labourers and working cat- 
tle, may be regularly arranged in columns, in figures only, under 
the proper name or head to which the work belongs, when each 
column is summed up, the contents of each will determine the 
amount of debit and credit which belongs to each separate account, 
so far as either the labour of men or horses is concerned. The 
whole of the work done during the month, by the working cattle, 
should at this time be entered in one line, to the credit of 
teams. The work done by the labourers ought not to be placed to 
their credit until the end of the year, or so often as they may set- 
tle with the gentleman, which will be frequent, when hired by the 
month or day. Seed with some other articles will also require se- 
parate entries; but the whole of these will be found trivial. It is 
the frequent change from one field, and one work to another, that 
renders it tedious to keep farming accounts by regular double entry. 
A change in weather often compels a sudden change in the work. 
When one field is finished, the labourers, horses, &c. are sent to 
another, be the hour of day what it may. If the wind rises, and 
the people are sowing plaster or grass seeds, they must leave this 
for some other work. In short, it would be an endless piece of busi- 
ness to particularize the different causes that often divide and sub- 
divide the hours of the day into various kinds of work to be done 
by labourers, horses, &c. The sheet of paper ought to be filed, 
lest any thing thereafter should occur to induce a suspicion of 
error. 

Every gentleman farmer ought to keep a diary, in which the 
winds and weather should be registered, with the effects produced 
by them ; this may be done to answer the farmer's agricultural pur- 
poses tolerably well without the aid of the thermometer or barome- 
ter, but far better with them. Without the assistance of the former 
he cannot well describe the climate in which he lives, either by, 

m 



476 

conversation or writing. The latter shows that important changes 
in the weather are to be expected before we either see or feel that 
any change in the atmosphere has taken place : consequently this 
instrument is important, especially in hay time and harvest, and 
when seeds are to be sown. 

The effects produced by insects, blight, 6cc. together with those 
arising from drought, storms, excess of rain, and from the practices 
pursued, should be entered in this book ; likewise the time of sow- 
ing, planting, &c ; also the nativity of domesticated animals, as 
well as every other interesting occurrence or circumstance con- 
nected with agriculture. If this book be kept correctly, a reference 
to it will be frequently found invaluable. In fact, no man whose 
meniorv »« not equal to a parish register, will ever understand 
farming without it; and the time required to keep it is but a few 
minutes in the evening of each day. 

If the reader will take a retrospective view of what has been 
said of the gentleman's expensive preparation for the accommoda- 
tion of his family; also, for farming, and the scanty product that 
is to be expected from his fields, extensive stock of cattle, &.c. 
Avhile he is running the gauntlet of gentleman farming, he will 
find every reason to believe, that an immense sum of money will 
be spent, and but little received in return, except the few dollars 
and cents occasionally gathered, and but too seldom honestly deli- 
vered, by his unfortunate market-man. The profits of the farm 
will be so far from paying any part of his family expenditures 
that they will fall very short of paying the board of those that 
labour on it, and furnish sufficient provision for the working cattle 
and other live stock kept on the place, If the gentleman lives in 
style, his expenses are infinitely greater than they would be in 
town. If he depend on the country butchers and bakers, the arti- 
cles are generally very inferior and much higher priced than they 
are in town. The same happens (so far as price is concerned) if 
he depend on the farmers in his neighbourhood for butter, poultry, 
&c. If a servant be sent to procure these articles in town, hvs 
labour and that of the horse is lost, and the gentleman is but too 
frequently sadly cheated by him. 

A gentleman living in the country not only entertains his com- 
pany, but also their servants and horses. This, however, would not 
be considered an evil, if that company were generally such as he 
wished to see. But it too often happens, that the visiters form 
a medley that gives him more pain than pleasure. It is known that 
the gentleman's wine is goodi and his table well supplied; and 
many who are fond of a jaunt into the country, and a good glass 
of wine, (although they never visited him in town,) take a ride 
(if they may be believed) for the express purpose of examining the 
gentleman's improvements; of which they commonly tell him much 
is every where said. As the wisest philosopher is not always in- 
sensible to well directed flattery, (although they have laboured 
hard to convince us that the contrary is true,) the visiter is po- 



477 

liteiy entertained; and becomes so highly interested in the gentle- 
man's very judicious and extensive improvements, that he cannot 
forbear calling frequently to observe the progress of them. If the 
gentleman be rich he will not feel the expense; but it is clear, that 
after he comes to understand the drift of too many of his visiters, 
he cannot help feeling, and that severely too, the great trouble and 
perplexity which is introduced by such a round of company: espe- 
cially as by far too much of it happens on Sunday, when his ser- 
vants are also traveling in pursuit of pleasure. This often makes 
it exceedingly difficult to muster sufficient assistance to get through 
the labours of a day, which preachers, and a few old fashioned peo- 
ple, tell us, ought to be devoted to rest and religion. 

The gentleman's anxiety to have his buildings and pleasure 
grounds completed, and to have every obstacle to a perfect culti- 
vation removed, t<to often induces him to keep many workmen 
and teams employed through the Avinter, which more than doubles 
the cost of this Herculean task. The days are short, and the sea- 
son presents many serious obstacles to labour. Tiie labourers 
commonly rise very late on a gentleman's farm, and for the most 
part idle much time away through the rest of the day. - The gen- 
tleman seldom fails to observe this great loss of time, and takes 
such measures as seem best calculated to remove the evil, but he 
rarely succeeds. If he discharge his head man, or farmer, and 
pay very liberal wages to such as come highly recommended foe 
their talents and industry ; and some of them may really try to 
effect the change which the gentleman wishes, they find the la- 
bourers confirmed in the habit of idlenesss; also refractory, and 
determined not to be subdued by a hireling, whom they consider 
no better than themselves. As it too commonly happens that the 
gentleman has removed to the country for the express purpose of 
getting rid of the troubles and perplexities of the world, he seldom 
loves farming sufficiently to induce him to undertake this trouble- 
some business himself: or the change might be readily effected by 
rising early in the morning, and attentively superintending his 
workmen through the day. His presence and intelligence would 
stimulate them to emulation and industry; and the business of the 
farm would progress regularly without any very apparent difliculty; 
as. in common the gentleman possesses talents, enterprise and in- 
dustry to etfect this, or, indeed, a much more difficult task. But 
as he removed to the country to spend his days in calm and easy 
retirement, he has no idea of encountering a business which he 
considers exactly calculated to destroy his repose, and inconsistent 
with the rational pursuits of a gentleman; and so far as his views 
of farming are concerned, his conclusions are just; for unless a 
gentleman take great delight in agriculture, he could not readily 
engage in any business that a man of fortune and talents could 
pursue, which would not prove much less tiresome and perplexing 
to him than farming. 

The winter is commonly a very solita/'y season in the country 



478 

when the gentleman and his family do not take an active interest 
in the business done on the farm. It also generally happens when 
the buildings, pleasure grounds, &c. are extensive, that much re- 
mains to be finished during the ensuing spring, summer and fall. 
Therefore the yard round the house, garden, lawn, &c. remain 
greatly incommoded with large quantities of rude materials neces- 
sary to complete the work; this, with numerous unfinished designs, 
form the appearance of a wide unseemly waste, rather than the 
happy abode of rural felicity: consequently when the spring opens, 
the gentleman's family seem to be excluded from the enjoyment of 
it, for the dreary appearance of winter is protracted. As April is 
the common time when purchasers, as well as renters of land, take 
possession, the gloom that envelopes the gentleman's family may 
be still much more increased, if he happen to keep correct ac- 
counts. The settlement of his books at the end of his first year's 
apprenticeship to agriculture, will clearly convince him, that gen- 
tleman farming (when folly is attached to it) is a very serious and 
expensive piece of business. This fact is so very contrary to the 
opinion he entertained previously to trying it, that he must be 
possessed of uncommon fortitude or insensibility, if it, with the 
continued perplexity arising from his mismanagement, does not 
greatly reduce his usual vivacity. If this happen, it will naturally 
spread a general gloom through the family, as they cannot feel 
happy while they clearly observe he is otherwise. 

It would be useless to describe more than the events of the first 
year of the gentleman's apprenticeship to farming, for notwith- 
standing he may be very prudent, and studiously avoid the errors 
he has committed so soon as they are known, and actually make 
many valuable improvements, still, as he does not take an active 
part in the business, and fails in all his ill judged attempts to cor- 
rect the idleness and mismanagement which prevail among his la- 
bourers, after spending two, three, or perhaps more, years of his 
life in perpetual uneasiness, he returns to the city disgusted with 
agriculture; and clearly convinced that it is impossible for a gen- 
tleman to farm in this country without becoming a perfect slave, 
or sinking a great deal of money, besides subjecting himself and 
his family to perpetual inquietude. 

However, if the gentleman possessed a handsome estate pre- 
viously to his removing into the country, and left no unsettled 
concerns in town, he may yet do well, notwithstanding he has 
sunk a great deal of money, for he escapes the ruinous conse- 
quences which have happened tO some who thought it most prudent 
to make a fair trial of what they had to expect from farming before 
they laid aside their concerns in town. This is, however, an egre- 
gious, and too often, a fatal error: therefore should be avoided by 
every gentleman who engages in agriculture with the same care as 
he would shun the certain road to ruin. For, if he may happen to 
-succeed, still, it compels him to hazard, in the prudence and ma- 
nagement of others, what may not only subject him to very serious 



479 

losses, but may also beggar himself and family : besides blasting his 
well earned fame for prudence and punctuality, by an assignment 
of his property for the benefit of his creditors. This is certainly 
too much to confide in the hands of others; for, although they may 
be deemed both prudent and upright, still, how many have we seen 
entirely ruined by the unwarrantable conduct of those in whom 
they believed they had every rational reason to think they might 
safely confide. 

A city opens innumerable avenues for ruinous speculation ; and 
every note must be paid by three o'clock on the day it becomes 
due. Should speculation turn out unfavourably, and the speculator 
be involved beyond the prudent extent of his capital, if the broker 
or auctioagjer do not advance the money, the note is protested. An 
early protest is certainly the best thing that could happen for all 
the parties concerned. Shame, however, or* hope, too commonly 
stimulates the adventurer to go on, and, as he knows those sacri- 
fices will disturb the repose of his friends in the country, they ate 
secretly made; and, unless accident should disclose them, they are 
not known until no prudence is capable of warding off the fatal 
stab to the gentleman's fortune and reputation. 

Some have expected to escape this, by being almost daily in town. 
They have, however, not only found themselves mistaken, but in 
the end, stripped of all they possessed, and themselves and fami- 
lies turned out on the world, nearly as naked as when they came 
into it. It is true the world is wide, and the gentleman's talents- 
and industry, may yet maintain his family ; but will he not see, and 
feel too, how very differently they are compelled to live, and that 
his pleasing prospect of an independent provision for his children, is 
blasted ? 

Nothing but religion, founded on a firm belief in a happy futuri- 
ty, can enable the sufferer to bear, with resignation, this sad reverse 
of fortune. It is true, a firm mind, aided by philosophical reflec- 
tion, may enable him to bear it with manly fortitude ; but as thb; 
points with no degree of certainty beyond the grave, and little but 
suffering is to be looked for, on this side of it, but little consolation 
can be obtained from it. 

However, if no evil should happen, from risking (lis fortune and 
reputation on the prudence of others, and his concerns in the city 
should terminate in a large accession of property, even gold may 
be bought too dear. If the gentleman really loves farming, his 
mind is continually harassed, not only with the idleness, but also 
with the mismanagement, which take place on the farm while 
he is in town. Admitting he can afford to lose the money, still 
his best laid plans are frequently defeated from this cause alone ^ 
therefore, he may be aptly compared to an amphibious animal, which 
is formed to act on land or in the water, but yet not perfectly ca' 
culated for either. 



CHAPTER XLVIII. 



observations on British convertible husbandry, as practised in Noifolk, Suffolk 
and Scotland. The errors in this husbandry explained. On the threshing miUs 
invented in Scotland. On the mistaken opinion, that as turnips, and various 
other green crops, do not perfect their seed generally on the soil where they 
are grown, they are ameliorating. It is proved that the useless expense at- 
tached to British husbandry, has formed a new ei-a in tlie annals of agricul- 
ture ; that it has placed the formers in that country on the pdjfeon hst, to 
an amount neai-ly equ^ to half the value of the crops grown by tjjiem. 

1 HAD seen nothing new from Great Britain on agriculture, for 
some years previously to my removal here, nor any thing since, but 
had been frequently told, that very great improvements in this 
science had, of late, been made ; especially in Scotland, which 
seemed to be outstripping even England herself. 

Since writing the foregoing part of this book. Sir John Sinclair's 
Systems of Scotch Husbandry has found its way here. On reading 
this work, with much care and attention, my disappointment has 
been astonishingly great. But little improvement appears, except 
in very expensive practices and institutions, exactly calculated to 
promote extravagant parade and show. 

As the gentleman farmer in this country, has been too long taught 
to imitate Great Britain in his practice, and it is him I more espe- 
cially n\ean to instruct by writing this book, it is considered proper 
to make some remarks on British husbandry, as it is now practised 
by the mammoth farmers, in the most highly improved parts of that 
country, asd where it approaches nearer to what it ought to be, 
than it does any where else.* 

In Scotlaivd, Norfolk and a part of Suffolk, convertible husbandry 
is now generally practised : in Scotland, old grass grounds are but 
rarely seen or spoken of, except with the contempt so justly due to 
a practice bortl^ring on barbarism. 

Whether the fcirmers in Norfolk and Suffolk have been wise enough 
to banish this inconsiderate, and very injurious practice, (where 
population will admit a better,) or wliether veneration for an an- 
cient practice induce them still to retain a part of their old grass 
grounds, is unknown to me. This is, however, of but little conse- 
quence to my present purpose. 

* This seems to be the more necessary, as a scarcity of books here compelled 
me to quote Mr. Young's Kural Economy, to illustrate my remarks on British 
husbandry : for as that book had been written some years ago, the reader mighi 
have considered a reference to it, not calculated to explain the expensive pr.'xC' 
♦ices now prevailing in England 



481 

As convertible husbandry is unquestionably the most profitable 
that can be adopted in any country, where population will admit it 
to be practised, I shall confine my present remarks on the agricul- 
ture of Great Britain, to Scotland, Norfolk and Suffolk, alone. 

In Scotland, the labour uselessly and very injuriously employed 
to cultivate the soil, is so great as to exceed credibility, if it had not 
been detailed by Sir John Sinclair, who, though he seems to admire 
the system of management, appears to wish, and in fact believe, 
that the labour might be greatly reduced. 

In Suffolk, the labour is much less, bat so ordered, as to be very 
injurious to the soil. 

In Norfolk, the labour does not seem to be equal to that employ- 
ed by Suffolk, except for the turnip crop. 

The number of grass crops intervening between the cultivated 
crops, in the Suffolk system, is not mentioned by Sir John. It is, 
however, probable, that they do not exceed the number employed 
in the management of Scotland or Norfolk ; of consequence, are 
insufficient either to favour luxuriant crops, or the improvement of 
the soil. 

Britons appear to know but little, if any thing, of the value of a 
grass lay, when employed for a fallow crop. Hence it is, that in 
Scotland and Norfolk, and, as I believe, in Suffolk also, the crop, 
be it what it may, that commences the round of crops, generally, 
if not always, follows after some cultivated crop. 

This seemingly entire ignorance of the immense importance of 
the judicious application of the grasses, in a course of cultivated 
crops, appears to have originated in the very erroneous value set 
upon old grass grounds. This caused the grasses to be but very 
seldom employed for the growth of cultivated crops, except a red 
clover lay, and as in the practice of Scotland, ray grass is generally 
sown with the clover, and the roots of this speargrass are not so 
readily subdued ; especially in a clay soil and dripping climate, the 
propriety of sowing wheat on such a lay, still, however, called a 
clover lay, has been questioned by many of the cultivators there, 
who now seem to prefer sowing oats on it. 

Such lays, however, or even a lay composed of speargrasses alone, 
provided the grounds have not been considerably consolidated by 
time, may be readily made to form as good a preparation for wheat, 
or any other small grain, as any known to us, if the sod be well turn- 
ed by the plough, at a depth consistent with the enriching matters 
contained in and upon it, or that have been previously spread over 
it; and the grasses and weeds are properly subdued, in the way 
that has been directed in my book on Cultivation. 

The great defect in British convertible husbandry, is a deficiency 
of grasses in their system of management, and commencing their 
round e£ crops on grounds where some cultivated crop had been 
just before previously grown, in place of commencing them on a 
grass lay, together with employing an excess of labour, which in 
place of doing good, inflicts serious injury on the crops, as well a<? 

3P 



482 

on the soil. It is, however, in the practice of Scotland, that this 
excess of labour is most conspicuous. 

Sir John tells us, " the process of fallowing, according to the 
Scotch system, is both laborious and expensive, but it is the pivot 
on which depends the proper cultivation of the clay lands in Scot- 
land. The number of ploughings must be as many as six or seven. 
Rolling repeatedly, is also necessary to break the clods, in order that 
access may be had to the root weeds, mixed with the soil, and the 
lands must be harrowed for the purpose of bringing those weeds to 
the surface. There is reason, liowever, to believe, that alter every 
solid clod has been crushed and reduced by the roller, that his ob- 
ject may be obtained by the scuffler, when the irons are bent. Af- 
ter harrowing, it is the most essential part of the process, to collect 
the weeds by hand-picking, the expense attending which, is well 
bestowed} some burn the roots that are gathered upon the field, and 
spread the ashes, whilst others gather them into a heap, frequently- 
turning it over, till the weeds rot, and by mixing the whole with 
lime, an excellent compost is made, and an enemy is converted into 
a friend."* It would seem, however, that Sir John had better said, 
" thus a powerful friend, by being speedily consumed by fire, or 
more slowly reduced by the corrosive action of lime, is rendered 
incapable of doing much good." 

This gentleman also says, " the grubber, known by the name of 
the cultivator,! is a farming implement, of late much improved. It 
turns up couch grass, or other noxious weeds, whose roots may be 
turned down by ploughing, out of the reach of the cofrmon harrow. 
In this case, theretore, recourse is hod to the grubber, which etfec- 
tually raises every thing to the surface. VVnen this object is 
obtained, harrowing and gathering is ag;MU carefully employ- 
ed. In all cases it requires four horses, but except when much 
rough sod is on the field, or an uncommon quantity of couch grass, 
only a steady and attentive driver is required, and never more be- 
side the driver and a boy, with a plough staff in his hand, to put 
away any thin;^ that is likely fo occasion any interrupiion in the 
work. This implement costs iroui eight pounds to eight guineas ;"| 
or from thirty-five to fiftj, four dollars. 

This costly iitsirument wsjii ed at great expense, by four hor es, 
one man, and som-(iuies a boy, fol'owed by h.-ir; ows, and a multitude 
of labourers, cannot otherwise be consiiiertd than a disgrace to 
common sense ; especially if the destruction effected by it, and 
those following after it, be duly appreciated. If it had been inven'ed 
and used by the small farmers, as they are now c^tUed^ Mr. Young 
might, with some appearance of propriety, have called 'hem " the 
most ignorant set of people in tlie world." The inver.uon and use 
of this destructive iasrument, however, belong to the mammoth 

• See his System of "■ cotch Husbandry, vol. i. pages 235, 236. IPF 
I I'ools of the same descri tion, and used for the same purposes, are called 
by different names, in different parts of Britain. 
t i>ee Appendix., vol. ii. page 163. 



483 

farmers, as does that of many others, quite as much opposed to the 
object of farixiing and which, if lime and room would permit, ought 
to be exposed. 

Whtii, however, it is jrenerally known, that animal and vegeta- 
ble matters alone, furniBli food for plants, and farmers become bet- 
ter acquainted with the simple means, by which the grasses and 
weeds, injurious to their crops, may be readily subdued, and ren- 
dered, in propurtioii to quantity and quality, as nutritive food for 
plants, as any other vegetation grown on their grounds, they will 
greatly wonder, how it could happen that the enlightened cultiva- 
tors in Britain, were so egregiously mistaken, as to employ with 
very great labour and expense, various processes, and different cost- 
ly implements, constructed with fangs, &c. calculated for the ex- 
press purpose of dragging up to the surface of the soil, far the 
greater part of the living and dead vegetation contained in it, 
which had not sunk so far into decay, as to elude the grasp of their 
destrustive fangs, for the express purpose of burning, or otherwise 
nearly destroying the nutritious matters contained in it. 

Such, however, is the present practice of Scotland and Suffolk. 
Even Sir John liimself tells us, the grubber effectually raises every 
thing to the surface ; now as this cannot be doubted, it is evident, 
that it raises not only " couch grass, root weeds," anil the vegeta- 
tion contained in what this gentleman calls a " rough sod," all of 
which, if properly used, furnish valuable food for plants, but also 
every kind of vegetation, whether it be rough or smooth, which has 
not sunk so far into decay, as to elude its destructive grasp. 

Much lime is used in Scotland, and it would appear, that in most 
instances, wliere the soil is rich enough without the use of dung to 
produce a good crop of wheat, the latter is not applied. It would 
seem, however, that it generally happens, that the naked fallow for 
wheat must be dunged, or if not, that dung is applied for some other 
crop in the round : therefore, as the eattle who made the dung, 
were fed and littered with the produce of the land, the seed of the 
couch grass, root weeds, &c. are introduced in it, as if sown to pro- 
duce another crop of them. As ill weeds grow apace, ample pro- 
vision is made for renewing the same inconsiderate and laborious 
task, when the next round of crop commences. Thus, a very labo- 
rious and ill judged system of husbandry, creates and perpetuates 
an abundance of useless and very injurious work for itself. 

I have before pointed out how the preparation and cultivation of 
a whole and extensive round of crops may be obtained, with as little, 
or perhaps less labour, than what is called the improved system of 
husbandry in Scotland employs, in executing a naked fallow sown 
in wheat, and with by far greater advantage to the crops and the 
soil ; still, as it is very difficult to convince those who have been 
long accustomed to bestow much useless and very injurious labour 
in subduing weeds, that a great de^l less will effect that purpose 
much better, [ beg leave to observe, ^at some amphibious animals 
can live very long under the water, but if confined in this situation 



484 

too long, they invariably die, if not admitted to approach near enough 
to the surface, to obtain a supply of fresh air from the atmosphere. 
The same happens to hardy root weeds, for though many of them 
can live long, while every part of them is closely buried under the 
soil, there are none of them which do not eventually die, if, while 
they should exercise the powers of vegetation freely, they are not 
admitted, but for a very short time, to approach near enough to the 
surface, to obtain a suflBcient supply of fresh atmospherical air. 
How they are thus more readily subdued by very cheap, expeditious, 
and simple means, has been also already clearly explained. Here, 
however, I beg leave to remark, that the best formed plans may be 
defeated, if they be not properly executed ; thus if the hoes in the 
hoe harrows, by which, agreeably to my simple system, the soil is 
principally prepared, and the crops cultivated, be not kept suffici- 
ciently sharp, apart, or it may be the whole of the tops of the hardy 
grasses and root weeds, will be only mangled, in place of being 
smoothly and effectually cut off within the surface of the soil. In 
this case the tined harrow, in place of covering the wounded plant 
closely within the earth by the soil above it, will drag its crippled, 
but still living leaves and branches to the surface, so as they may 
have free access to the air ; of consequence, if the plant be hardy, 
it will live, notwithstanding the top may have been much mutilated. 

Although many plants will long survive, if they be frequently 
mowed off close to the ground, there are none that can live long, if 
after th* roots of the plant have been reversed by the plough, the 
new growing tops be regularly cut off by a well directed cultivation, 
a little within the surface of the soil, and the part of the plant re- 
maining within the ground be closely covered by the soil above it.* 
Why then should the cultivators of the soil expend so much labour 
in the destruction of the hardy grasses and weeds, when with far 
less they might be subdued, and profitably employed as food for 
plants. 

Sir John tells us, " nothing but the deepest conviction of the ad- 
vantages to be derived from the operation, could induce such mul- 
titudes of skilful, intelligent farmers, to incur the nunierous and 
heavy charges attending on the summer fallowing process." It is 
evident, however, that the expense must depend upon the amount of 
the rent, the number of ploughings, &c. and the value of the ma- 
nure applied. Indeed the -crop of wheat succeeding the fallow, 
must pay the rent and expenses of two years ; of the amount of 
which the following calculations will give some idea. 

• When plants are cut off by the ground, the sap dries on the wound. The 
air has access to the stubs, of consequence the new shoots are vigorous : espe- 
cially as the root maintains its native position in the earth But when the plant 
has been reversed by the plough, and the new tops arising from it are regularly 
cut off, and the root kept closely covered by the soil above it, great debility 
takes place, a powerful fermentation is also excited, and the plant, be it what it 
may, sooner or later dies, if the cultivation be judiciously conducted. 



485 

per Scotch acre, per Eng. acre_ 

First six ploughings, harrowings, &c. ^400 jg3 3 
Secondly, for 2 jears' rent, at 3l. per ann. 

Scotch, or Zl. 7s. 3d. per English acre, 6 4 14 6 



^10 ^7 17 6 

Mr. Summer of Gilchristian, however, estimates, that including 
time, as well as rent and'labour, the expense cannot be less than 
151. Scotch, or III. I6s. English, g52 44 cents ; nay 2.01. or S70 and 
upwards have been so expended.* 

It is evident from this statement, that an average crop, after 
adding the expense of harvesting, threshing, and marketing, would 
not pay any thing like the expense, when wheat sold at a fair- ave- 
rage price. 

What a great loss both in rent and labour must there then be, in 
what Sir John calls the improved system of husbandry in Scotland 1 
especially if dung commonly applied for a wheat crop in Scotland 
had been estimated by this gehtleman at the price it costs when 
made on the farm. 

Tliis very great loss both in rent and labour is still more especially 
inexcusable, as this gentleman tells us, that many of the Scotch cul- 
tivators travel in quest of agricultural improvement. It would ap- 
pear, however, that in this instance they have traveled to but very 
little purpose : as in the improved parts of Suffolk, for between 
twenty and thirty years previously to the publication of his book on 
the Systems of Scotch Husbandry, a fallow crop, and also a crop of 
small grain following it, had been both obtained with but little more, 
if as much labour in the preparation of the soil, as is employed in 
what is called the improved system of Scotch husbandry for a single 
crop of wheat, and without sinking one year's rent of the land, not- 
withstanding the soil in Suffolk seems to be full as retentive of mois- 
ture, and quite, if not more difficult to manage in a wet time. But 
I trust it will be presently shown, that the extra labour employed in 
Suffolk to cultivate the ground, is not only useless, but alsi) highly 
injurious to the crops and the soil. 

Before this is done, however, it may be useful to make some re- 
marks on the great threshing mill invented in Scotland; especially 
as it seems to be of the utmost consequence in the management of 
the mammoth farmers in that country. From hence it would ap- 
pear that the use of it has spread with great rapidity through 
England. 

We are told by Sir John, that it costs two hundred pounds when 
it is made to be worked by six horses. It was, however, soon disco- 
vered that when the mill was worked by horses, the labour, added 
^ that done on the farm, " proved destructive to them."t To pre- 
vent this injury, oxen have been kept by some cultivators for the 

use of the threshing mill.f Others, to avoid this great increased 

* See vol. i. pages 237, 238. t Idem, page 83. i Idem, page 83. 



186 

expense, have encountered the task of erecting those machines to 
be ilriven either by water, steam or wind. The expense of a thresh- 
ing mill to be driven by the wind, is two hundred and fifty pounds. 
But as wind often fails, and the stream of water on the farm is not 
always sufficient, especially when most wanted, in many instances 
it has been considered best to annex a horse power also to mills of 
this description. In this case, the additional expense of one hun- 
dred and twenty pounds is incurred,* making in the whole six 
hundred and seventy pounds, Scotch, or about two thousand, two 
hundred and fifty dollars. 

The interest on this considerahJe sum together with the neces- 
sary repairs and interest on the amount, must act as a heavy tax; 
especially, if it be considered that at some future day, not very far 
distant, the machinery will be worn out, as waggons, carts, ploughs, 
&c. are, and if the use of it be perpetuated, it must be again 
erected. 

It is stated, that •' The aggregate advantage derived from well 
constructed threshing mills, wrought by water, and under proper ma- 
nagement, when compared with the old mode of threshing, will be 
eight per cent, on the corn threshed, including labour alone, but 
without making any allowance for the money sunk in erecting the 
mill, or repairing the machinery."* But, here I would ask, if only 
eight per cent, is said to be the advantage, when water, on which 
no expense is rated, is employed, what is to be expected, when the 
expense is greatly increased by using horses ^ 

Now it is exceedingly strange, that in all the calculations I have 
seen, of the money to be saved by this instrument, no estimate 
whatever has been made, either of the interest, or cost of repairs, 
or the money, and a large sum it is, that must be eventually sunk 
when the machinery is worn out. When on the other hand, calcu- 
lations, in plenty, have been made of considerable advantages to be 
obtained by the cleaner threshing, &c. when done by the mill. Al- 
though it is as evident as any other thing can be, that by no instru- 
ment can grain of every description, be cleaner or better threshed 
than by the flail : also, that the small farmer, as he is now called, 
either by doing the business himself, when but little else was to be 
done, or by assisting in it or superintending it, generally found 
but little difficulty in getting his grain threshed well, and in due 
time by this instrument- 
It would seem, however, that if the only just mode of calculating 
fairly the expense on both sides of the question had been pursued, 
that it would have been found, as some gentlemen well acquainted 
■with the threshing mill have asserted, that getting out grain by it 
costs more than when it is done by the flail ; especially in a country 
where only the oDe-tvventy-fifth part is paid for threshing with tUe 
lattei Histrument. Certain it is, that Sir John allows that without 
care and good management, wheat may be badly threshed by the 

* See vol. i. page 96. 



487 

mill, and he seems to think that unless in harvesting, the straw has 
been laid straight, it should be passed twice through the mill. 

The true stale of the case seems to be simply this, that on very 
extensive farms where great quantities of grain are of coHrse grown, 
unless the ground be too poor to yield tolerable crops, the time 
consumed in threshing so much of it by tlie flail, and " the loss by 
inattention was so insu^erabi' that the farmer was afraid to ^ofrom 
home fur eight months in the year during whicli the threshino- lasted ;" 
it is also sai<! by Sir John, that if in the large farms, hand labour 
were to be used for separating the corn from the straw, a farmer's 
whole attention would be taken up by barn work, otherwise the 
work would be imperfectly executed, whilst much pilferiTi"" would 
be going on, unless ae was constantly on the watch."* 

Here this gentleman, who in no case appears to wish to disguise 
facts, lets the cat out of the bag. These seem to be the principal 
reasons why the agriculture of Scotland has been saddled with the 
enormous expense of the very costly threshing mill. In fact, every 
thing is done to sucli very great disadvantage on a very large farm, 
that this circumstance alone appears to compel the cultivator to 
avoiil perpetual inquietude by too frequently deviating very widely 
from the genuine rules of rural economy, in his practice. 

We are told by Sir John, that " a small machine has been contrived 
on Meikle's principles, (the inventer of the larger one,) which may 
be purchased as low as eight pounds, and may be driven by two 
men, though a small horse would be a better power to apply. An 
account of this machine, and an engraving of it, extracted from the 
Farmer's Magazine, will be found in the Appendix, No. 20. There is 
no doubt of ifs being perfectly adequate to the threshing of the crops 
of small farmers ; and is more likely to be adopted in foreign coun- 
tries tiian the larger machine."! 

From this, we may readily infer, that Sir John thought of the 
agriculture of foreign countries, and how highly he estimated that 
of his own. The ettects, however, which the late general peace had 
on the agricultural interests of Great Britain, ought to have since 
then convinced him that foreign countries had at least acted wisely, 
by not introducing into their agricultural system of management 
such very costly implements, and highly injurious and expensive 
practices as had been done in Britain. 

The small threshing machine, however, might be highlv impor- 
tant to the agriculture of this country; especially if it may be 
readily so altered as to thresh about one hundred bushels of wheat 
per day when driven by one horse. This seems to be intimated 
in the second volume of Sir John's System of Scotch Husbandry: 
see the Appendix. It should, however, be observed, that some 
have made objections to it, as well as to the larger one. But whe- 
ther those objections are well or ill founded, is unknown to me 
further than that the large mill will be found by far too costly to 

* See vol. i. pages 92, 93, f Idem, pages 103, 104, 



488 

be employed where an economical system of agriculture prevails, 
even should it be much more perfect tlian it is represented to be 
by those who esteem it most highly. 

In every country, and In every age, gentlemen of fortune and 
leisure have had their hobby horse. Agriculture has been the 
hobby of the present age. \\'hen this nag is driven by the small 
but intelligent practical farmer, who has been accustomed to em- 
ploy strict economy in equipping, and caution in driving it, obser- 
vation clearly proves it to be the most durable and useful nag in 
the world. 

But when mounted by the gentleman, who but too commonly 
employs great expense in equipping and managing his hobby, and, 
Jehu-like, drives furiously, the nag, not accustomed to be thus 
treated and driven, becomes weak and debilitated, and notwith- 
standing great bounties may be offered, and the quackery of govern- 
ment employed to relieve and restore the hobby to its native 
energy, it eventually dies, and it cannot prosper but in its own 
element. 

Every thing thrives best in its own element. Thus, while poultry 
fequently perish in the very costly, extensive, and seemingly con- 
venient and well formed establishments made for them by the gen- 
tleman, they thrive, and produce abundantly, in the apparently 
uncomfortable, smoky, and but too often filthy, clay cabin of an 
indigent Irishman. 

A minute economy, very different from that which gentlemen 
have been accustomed to practice, and which is very difficult to be 
either learned or employed by men who have generally had at 
command a plenty of money, is the only element in which agricul- 
ture can permanently flourish. We might have long since seen 
and known this full well. By observing that a multitude of gen- 
tlemen in this country (where the agriculturist is not bolstered up 
by bounties) had, after sinking a great deal of money, abandoned 
farming merely because they did not understand, or neglected to 
practice, in the management of their business, the minutice of eco- 
nomy, so closely connected with the well being of it. 

It is evident, however, that many of those gentlemen would 
have far better succeeded if they had not been led by the false 
glare of British agriculture into many expensive practices which 
were entirely inconsistent with the economy of farming. 

To cast further light on the management of British convertible 
husbandry, I beg leave to insert some extracts taken from a report 
made by A. Young, of the management of clay or retentive soils ia 
Suffolk : particularly as it may convince the reader, that the culti- 
vation of clay or retentive soils may be much more profitably ma- 
naged than is done in Scotland,* notwithstanding the Suffolk ma- 

• This seems to be the more necessary, for notwithstanding much has been 
both said and written against naked fallow, to my utter astonishment I find they 
still prevail even among the farmers in Scotland, who no question may be justly 
ranked among the most enlightened cultivators m Britain. 



489 

nagement is also too expensive, and equally as destructive to the 
vegetable matters contained in the grounds. 

Mr. Young observes, that " In tlie Suffolk report there are many 
details of an improvement in the tillage considered in that country 
as of the greatest importance, and which has been extensively prac- 
tised for above twenty years. The soil of the district where this 
practice prevails, is a wet loam, on a clay bottom, ton heavy for 
turnips, however well drained.* The old system of the country 
was a plan, common throughout the kingdom, to give one spring 
ploughing for peas and beans, and two or three for barley or oats. 
The uncertainty of the weather in the spring rendered this system 
of tillage the most difficult and perplexing part of the business of a 
wet land farmer; drying north-east winds left a surface of hard 
clods, and rain turned it to mud ; much expense, late spring sow- 
ing, and bad crops, were often the consequence ; but the new sys- 
tem introduce!^, has removed every evil, and placed the farmers in 
great security. 

*' The management they have adopted is this, while the land is 
yet dry in autumn, the fields are carefully ploughed into ridges ex- 
actly of a breadth which suits the various implements to be em- 
ployed in the spring, such as harrows, scufflers, scarifiers, and drill 
machines, all adapted to one given breadth, so that no horse when 
drawing any of them may ever set a foot on the ridges, but move 
solely in the furrow. t The governing principle of this is, the win- 
ter's frost leaves the surface in the finest possible order for seeds, 
loose, and friable, dry and porous. In this state, if rain falls on it, 
the soil dries again, and recovers its porosity, whereas if rain falls 
at this season of the fresh ploughed land, the tendency is to plaster 
it, and it does not again become porous. If such a fresh friable sur- 
face be ploughed down, nothing equal to it, for the seed of a crop, is 
to be expected one year in twenty ; vvhereas by retaining the soil, 
thus ameliorated by frosts on the surface, the spring crops may be 
sown sometimes in the beginning of February, and in other seasons 
about the middle or end of that month, or perhaps the beginning of 
March, and in much better order for a crop than according to the 
old system, at the end of April, or throughout the month of May, 

• That is as I suppose agreeably to the prevailing fashion under drained.- 
This, however, seems to have been found insufficient, therefore recourse was 
had to ridging, the only rational remedy where the excess of moisture does not 
arise from spouts or spr ngs. In nothing is the inconsiderate and enormous 
expense, which folly has attached to British husbandry, more conspicuous than 
in under draining a retentive soil. Common sense and observation, if they had 
been consulted before this Herculean task became fashionable, would have de- 
termined that but little water could find its way through a clay soil, which holds 
moisture nearly as well as a cup, into the under drains. 

f Mr. Young here notes, that "It is proper to state a distinction between scuf- 
flers and scarifiers. The scuffler is an instrument with flat triangular cutters 
merely to cut the weeds, and they are afterwards raked up by haiTows. The 
scarifier on the other hand, has bent coultei-s, tears up the couch grass and other 
root weeds, and brings them to the surface. It has various other names, tor- 
mentor, cultivator, &c," 

r,q 



490 

though with ati additional expense of perhaps thirty shillings per 
acre.* If there are weeds in the field, a scuffler is made use of first, 
followed by harrows, then by the drill machines, for in that part of 
Suifblk the corn is generally drilled ; and lastly, a light harrowing 
to finish the tillage ; but sometimes the drill goes on at once, fol- 
lowed only by light harrowing. The success which has attended 
this practice has been so decided, that all the best farmers have for 
some time past adopted it. 

" Such was the state of this husbandry on the strong lands of Suf- 
folk down to the year 1804. The President of the Board of Agri- 
culture being informed that the practice had rather declined, he 
requested John Mosely, Esq. of Tofts, near Brandon, to ascertain 
that point; and in April, 1813, he had the pleasure of receiving 
a letter from that gentleman, informing him that the use of the 
scarifier, instead of the plough, in the spring, is more predomi- 
nating, instead of less so."t 

Notwithstanding a part of the Suffolk system of husbandry is 
good, it is evident, the most that can be generally effected by it, 
is too keep up the present fertility of the soil by the application of 
much enriching manure. Improvement, therefore, is not to be ex- 
pected, except in cases where unusual exertions are made to efl'ect 
this purpose ; and even in that case it must progress very slowly, 
unless much enriching manure is purchased 

The reason is obvious : there can be but few, if any, soils which 
are capable of withstanding having nearly all the vegetation (ex- 
cept that part of it which has sunk so far into decay as to elude 
the fangs of the scarifier, or tormentor, of the soil) dragged up to 
the surface, carefully collected, picked up by hand, and either con- 
sumed by fire, or greatly wasted by decomposition and the action 
of lime. 

In fact, it would appear, that any cultivator, if he possessed but 
a very moderate share of native talents, and exercised his reason 
on a fact so very obvious, and had been previously taught that ani- 
mal and vegetable matters alone furnished food for plants, might 
have seen that no system of management calculated to destroy such 
great quantities of vegetable substances could be proper, be the 
advantages resulting from it in other respects what they may. 

It is obvious, however, that neither the scarifier nor aiiy other 
instrument calculated to drag out the grasses and weeds, can so 
eflectually subdue them as a well directed fermentation. For in 
no case can it be otherwise than that some of those grasses and 
weeds, or parts of them at least, remain unseen, and covered up 
in the soil, where they will grow. 

• Mr. Young does not say how this additional expense of thirty shillings, or 
six dollars sixty-seven cents per acre arises. It seems probable, however, 
from the use of the scarifier or tormentor, together with harrows and multi- 
tudes of hand pickers of weeds, &c. following it. If so, it is the more to be re- 
gretted, that so much labour should be expended to do harm in place of good. 

f See Sir J. Sinclair's Systems of Scotch Husbandry, Appendix, pages 
66, 67. 



491 

But here I would ask, should we degrade our reasoning faculties 
so much (especially in a country where every citizen who can, and 
will work, may be profitably employed) as to spread a considerable 
proportion of our population over our fields to gather carefully by 
the tedious process of hand picking, the grasses and weeds dragged 
up to the surface by great labour and expense, when the most sim- 
ple and most expeditious tools employed by us, and aided by a well 
directed fermentation, are exactly calculated to subdue, save, and 
judiciously apply this hardy, but invaluable vegetation, to the 
growth of the crops and improvement of the soil ? No, my country- 
men, let this destructive process remain the exclusive privilege of 
those who invented it: to wit, the mammoth farmers of Britain, 
who have been compelled, from the effects produced by their truly 
expensive system " of economical management," to publicly con- 
fess to the world, that the " foreign agriculturist is really so much 
against the English farmer that the latter cannot bring the produce 
of his own soil, and in his own market, at one-half the price at 
which even a Frenchman can supply us." 

Now why did the mammoth farmers (or, as Sir John calls them, 
" commercial farmers who speculate boldly in lands as in other mer- 
cantile transactions^^) make this degrading confession ? The reason 
is obvious: it was done to place the agriculture of Great Britain, 
now no longer able to maintain itself, on the list of pensioners. 
Thus has Mr. Young's system of " economical management" con- 
verted not only all the farmers, great and small, into paupers, but 
also all the men, women and children employed by them. 

That the agriculture of Great Britain has been placed in this 
degrading situalion, is evident; and, if we may believe the argu- 
ments used by the mammoth farmers to effect this purpose, it is 
equally evident, that it requires half the amount of all the pro- 
ducts of the soil* to put them on an equal footing in their own 
market " even with a French agriculturist." 

Now there can be but few men in their sober senses who will 
readily believe that the extra taxes introduced by the late war, 
bore any proportion to the amount of one-half of the products of 
the soil: consequently the balance, and a very large one it is, must 
have originated in the extra expence introduced by Mr. Young's 
mistaken system of" economical management," formed, as he seems 
to boast, by his very superior talents, " on untrodden ground." But 
to return to the scarifier or tormentor of the soil. It has so hap- 
pened, that philosophers, chemists and farmers have too generally 
expected much food for plants from various substances which either 
contained too little to be perceptibly useful to agriculture, or none 
at all. 

This has caused them to estimate animal and vegetable matters, 
which are the only food on which plants can live, so little, that 

• No more of this produce, however, tlian is actually sold, or paid away in 
lieu of money, should form a part of this estimate. 



492 

they have but too seldom hesitated to burn, or otherwise destroy 
them, when they were opposed to their favourite plans. When 
nature and reason, however, have been harmonized in the practice 
of husbandry, these absurd and destructive practices will cease, 
and the great value of animal and vegetable matters will then 
clearly appear. Fixed principles of cultivation will also be esta- 
blished, by which these matters will be carefully employed, when 
it can be done, in the soils where tliey are fouiid growing, whether 
they be hardy or otherwise, rough or smooth; also, collected by 
every rational means, and so saved, applied, and managed, that 
nothing will be lost which human ingenuity can save. 

In a soil so wet as Mr. Young represents a part of Suffolk to be, 
the labour, except that performed by the scarifier, and the gather- 
ing and destroying the vegetation dragged up by it, seems to be 
executed with skill and despatch. " The fields are carefully 
ploughed into ridges exactly of the breadth which suits the various 
instruments to be employed, such as harrows, scarifiers, scufflers, 
and drill machines, all adapted to one given breadth, so that no 
horse sets a foot on the ridge, but moves solely in the furrow." 

Hence it would appear, that the rudiments of mathematical pre- 
cision have been already attained. These properly improved, 
would lead us to the knowledge of the proper depths and distances 
at which seeds of every description should be placed in the soil; 
also, to invent simple, cheap instruments, by which this purpose 
may be effected, and likewise to cultivate the plants properly and 
with despatch. 

Nothing can be more evident than if the vegetation dragged 
up to the surface of the ground, by the scarifiers, and there <le- 
stroyed, or very much wasted, had been permitted to remain, after 
its roots had been reversed by the plough, where nature had caused 
it to grow, and its vegetative powers subdued by the ready and ef- 
fectual means which have been pointed out, that notwithstanding 
nothing like the same quantity of it could generally have obtained, 
as prevails in a grass lay well stored with the roots of the grasses, 
the adhesive soil would have had its parts divided and expanded to 
a certain extent by it. The moisture would have also been filtered 
off', in due proportion to the divisions made in the soil by it. The 
plants grown on the grounds would likewise have been fed and in- 
vigorated, and the soil improved, in proportion to the substances 
which were dragged up and destroyed on the surface of the field, 
by the injudicious mode of cultivation now practised in Suffolk 
and Scotland. 

It would appear, however, that Britons have not yet learned to 
value vegetation in all the different shapes and forms in which it 
appears in their fields in due proportion to the food for plants con- 
tained in it ; though in Suffolk and in some other parts, the tools are 
in common use, which would readily subdue and bring into active 
employment the vegetation which is now uselessly devoted to de- 
struction there. 



493 

Neither have those cultivators whom we have been urged to imitate 
in our practice, any just ideas of the great value of a speargrass lay. 
If they had, they would certainly employ such lays, where convert- 
ible husbandry prevailed, for every fallow crop grown by thenu 
Nothing can be more obvious where they have been employed, than 
that they form the best preparation that has yet been discovered. 
Even a turnip crop will grow much more luxuriantly on a grass lay, 
than any where else, if the grounds have been properly prepared for 
that plant. In fact, I do not know a single plant that will not prosper 
better on a grass lay than any where else. The many gardens 
originally made on grounds of this description, in this country, de- 
monstrate this very interesting fact. In a system of convertible 
husbandry, however, where a sufficiency of grass intervenes, beans 
will be found not only a more lenient fallow crop than turnips, but 
also much more valuable, as will appear in a statement heretofore 
made in this book, to convince the gentleman farmer, that maize is 
a far more profitable fallow crop than turnips, or even than the 
horsebean grown in England. 

I did not at that time know that the bean plant afforded such va- 
luable dry fodder. I, therefore, beg leave to observe, that if this 
had been duly considered, the advantage to be derived from grow- 
ing beans in place of turnips, for a fallow crop, would have appear- 
ed still more considerable. 

Sir John Sinclair informs us that the straw of the bean is much 
employed for feeding horses in Scotland, and that " when it is well 
harvested, it is little inferior to hay."* The fodder would be still 
much better, and the crop earlier harvested, if the plant were cut 
oft" by the roots, as soon as the milk in the bean disappeared, and set 
up in compact well formed heaps, in the same way as has been re- 
commended for harvesting maize. 

We have been informed that the Heliogoland bean, of late intro- 
duced into England, " produces, without extra manure, from sixty- 
four to eighty bushels per acre. In one instance, one bushel and a 
half sown on half an acre of poor clay land, without manure, yielded 
jfifty-two bushels and a half, Winchester measure. Some stalks had 
one hundred and forty-two pods on each of them. They are said to 
be infinitely superior in point of productiveness and quality, to any 
other ever introduced into England. That the merit of this bean 
consists in its perfect fulness of form, and thinness of skin, and ri- 
pening much sooner than the common sorts. They are short in the 
straw,. the pods grow in bunches, commencing near to the ground." 

" Such a bean would be very valuable to be grown by the circum- 
scribed farmer, in drills, on his thinner soils, to prepare them for 
small grain ; they would produce a more valuable crop on either 
clay or sandy soils, provided the grounds were well covered with 
the tops of the grasses, and well stored with their roots.f A much 

• See Systems of Scotch Husb. vol. i. pag-e 78. '' 

t Ked clover will eftcct such vegetation on a thin soil, if gypsum be employ- 
ed, and act as it commonly does. 



494 

larger crop, however, would be obtained by a good coat of manure 
spread over the lay, previously to ploughing it for the growth of the 
plant. There can be no question but beans require less food than 
maize, consequently, that they are less exhausting. This fact was 
clearly seen in my mixed crop of maize and beans, as the reader 
may observe by turning to a description of it. There can be but 
little doubt that the hor^ebean delights in a clay soil. Practice) 
however, in our gardens, seems to determine, that it will grow luxu- 
riantly in any soil, be the texture of it what it may, if suflBicient 
food be provided for it ; and there can be but little doubt, that a 
plant which requires no more food than the bean, will be able to 
produce a tolerable crop, in such a lay as has been above described, 
without the aid of farm yard manure. The farmer, however, who 
has the capital to keep a stock of cattle in proportion to the soil 
cultivated by him, should employ enriching manure, and in plenty, 
too, for all the fallow crops grown by him. 

Sir J. Sinclair does not mention the course of crops in Suffolk ; 
there can be but little doubt, however, that a deficiency of grass 
prevails there, as well as in Scotland and Norfolk. 

This gentleman informs us that the famous Norfolk system, is 
first, turnips; second, barley; third, clover; fourth, wheat. He 
says, *• this course is no longer so generally recommended: it is 
considered prejudicial to the landlord; and on a lease of twenty- 
one years, if constantly persevered in, it would not be found pro- 
fitable to the tenant. Half the farm is annually in white straw 
crops, which, from the frequency of the repetition, would not be 
productive ; besides which, the number of sheep and cattle kept un- 
der this system, is comparatively trifling. It can hardly be ques- 
tioned, that without a plentiful supply of extra manure, it will 
fail." 

Few subjects are more highly important than the one I now mean 
to discuss, previously to my making further remarks on the Norfolk 
practice: I, therefore, beg the reader's serious attention. He may 
ere now have been led to believe, as my theories are frequently so 
much opposed to those which generally prevail, that I wish to be 
singular. Nothing, however, could well be more erroneous ; for 
lest too marked an opposition to established customs, practices 
and opinions, should create an injurious prejudice against my book, 
and of course, cause my labours to be useless and abortive, I have 
endeavoured not to deviate further from the beaten track than ap- 
peared to be absolutely necessary. Hence it is, that little has 
lieretofore been said of the marked exhausting property of the tur- 
nip, or of the generally but erroneously prevailing opinion, that the 
exhausting properties of plants, in most, if not in all cases, depend 
on whether they do, or do not, form their seed previously to being 
gathered or removed from the land where they grew : consequently, 
green crops in general, are called ameliorating, although some of 
these crops seem to exhaust the soil more than wheat. Embolden- 
ed, however, from what Colonel Taylor and Sir John Sinclair say 



495 

of the turnip, I will make some observation's on the nature and pro- 
perties of it: also on the cabbage and the different roots commonly 
cultivated to be fed to live stock. 

Sir John says, " The farmers generally think potatoes the least 
exhausting, therefore, cultivate them in preference to turnips." No 
variety of the potato known to me, produces much seed on its vines. 
That, which I grow, is earlier than some other sorts, but by no 
means of the earliest kind. It puts out a flowering bud, but before 
the least appearance of a flower is sieen, nature loosens the grasp 
of the bud from the vine, and it prematurely falls to the ground 1 
of consequence, no seed is formed ; and this seems to be generally 
the case with the earlier varieties. 

The cabbage and all the roots commonly grown by us, except 
some varieties of the potato, form seeds, and if I recollect right, in 
plenty; but, in general, not until the year succeeding that of" 
their being planted or sown. It should, however, never be forgot- 
ten, especially when we mean to investigate the exhausting proper- 
ties of either one, or more of them, that notwithstanding they do 
not generally form their seed the first year, they attain their full 
growth, and gather from the soil, prepare and store up in their cells 
and vessels, the rich matter by which the seeds are formed and ma- 
tured. It, therefore, seems reasonable to conclude, that if the plant 
be left where it grew, to form its seed the succeeding year, that the 
soil will be but little more exhausted than it would have been, if 
it had been removed before its seed was formed ; as nothing can be 
more evident than by far the greater part, at least, of the matters 
by which the seed is formed, were gathered and stored up in the 
cells and vessels of the plant the preceding year. 

If my memory be correct, it was said as far back as in the 
writings of J. Tull, that the turnip is a " cormorant plant," if it be 
suffered to form its seed on the laud where it grows. Throughout 
my practice and observation, however, it has never failed to be a 
voracious " cormorant," and the difference, it would appear can be 
but little, whether it is, or is not, suffered to form its seeds on the 
land where it grows. 

In fact, it may readily be proved to be a great exhauster of the 
soil. Wheat is justly marked among the exhausting crops, yet it 
will grow and pay the farmer for cultivating it, at least in this 
country, where the agriculturists have not been placed on the pen- 
sion list, on poor ground, where he could not obtain a turnip crop 
that would pay the expense of gathering and securing it alone, by 
the usual means employed in the cultivation of that plant without 
manure. 

My practice in growing green crops for?feeding cattle, has been 
confined principally to the potato and turnip. I do not, therefore, 
presume to make any further observations on the exhausting proper- 
ties of the other roots or of the cabbage, commonly cultivated for 
this purpose, than that I fully believe, that m^^st if not all of them 
may be justly considered quite as exhausting, and I believe mot-e 



496 

so than wheat,* whether they be or be not suffered to form their 
seed where they grow, as it is evident, that in either case, the rich 
matter by which the seeds are formed, is gathered, prepared, and 
stored up in the cells and vessels of the fruit of the plants, while 
they are attaining their growth. 

Sir John, however, seems to think that two white straw crops, 
following so closely together, is the cause of the evils arising in the 
Norfolk system. Bat the great faults in this system are, first, the 
exhausting properties of the turnip ; secondly, too few grass crops ; 
thirdly, ploughing but four inches deep. This depth is preserved 
from an idea that a "pan," as it is there called, is formed under- 
neath the furrow slice. It may be, that by turning the furrow to 
the same depth, every time the ground is ploughed, the pores in the 
earth underneath it, are closed by the smaller particles of animal 
and vegetable matters existing on or near the surface of the soil, 
previously to its being ploughed. If this should form a " pan," by 
which the rains are more or less prevented from sinking deep into 
the soil, the moisture is confined so near to the surface, that it must 
be soon exhaled. The same cause which prevents the moisture from 
sinking, will also prevent that below the " pan," from rising up- 
wards in a dry time ; consequently the " pan," so far as moisture 
be concerned, can do no good, but may effect serious injury. In 
other respects, it is certainly very injurious, for notwithstanding 
reasons have been assigned why a poor soil ought not to be ploughed 
more than four inches deep, when but few vegetable substances ex- 
ist either upon or within it, and enriching manure cannot be applied, 
it is as evident as almost any other thing can be, that as the fertili- 
ty of a soil increases, it should be regularly deeper ploughed, in 
due proportion to the enriching matters already in or upon it, or 
the dung that may be applied, until a depth of eight or nine inches 
at least is obtained. Tne deeper animal and vegetable matters may 
be safely buried under the soil, the less of the volatile parts of 
those matters will evaporate. More moisture as well as a greater 
extent of pasture for the roots of the plants will be also secured by 
ploughing deep. 

In fact, though no person can be more opposed to deep plough- 
ing in a poor soil, than myself, I am clearly convinced that no depth 
of ploughing which can be expeditiously effected, at a moderate 
expense, can well be too deep for fallow crops, provided it does not 
extend deeper than nature or art has well enriched the soil. 

Sir John Sinclair, after describing various courses of crops em- 
ployed in Scotland, but all of them very deficient in grass interven- 
ing between the cultivated crops, observes : " We shall now proceed 
to consider the rotation of six crops, which is deservedly a favourite 
system in Scotland, in a light soil ; first potatoes or turnips ; second, 
barley ; third, grass ; fourth, oats ; fifth, beans ; sixth, wheat." Here 

* If what has been said of the lenient properties of the carrot, be COiTect, it 
may be less exhausting than wheat. 



497 

it may be proper to remark, that the grounds in Scotland, are com- 
monly ploughed three or four times for turnips, as many for barley, 
two or three times for oats, and twice for peas or beans. Thus it 
would appear, that in light as well as in heavy soils, much useless 
and very injurious labour is employed in that country. 

This gentleman says, in the strong lands in the Carse of Gowrie, 
and other fertile districts in Scotland, the following rotation with 
some variations, is considered preferable to every other: first fal- 
low ; second, wheat j third, beans ; fourth, barley ; fifth, grass ; sixth, 
oats. 

Now it is evident, that notwithstanding Sir John very justly 
considers the Norfolk system exhausting, and injurious to the land- 
lord, and of consequence, eventually the same to the tenant, the 
most approved courses of crops in Scotland, as described by him, are 
still much more exhausting and injurious to all the parties concerned. 

In the first of those rounds, there are five cultivated crops, and 
but one of grass ; one of those five crops, however, is turnips or 
potatoes, to be fed away to cattle, &c. This seems to make it less 
exhausting than the other course, in which only one crop, to wit, 
grass, is grown to be applied to the same purpose. The bean straw, 
highly esteemed in Scotland, is in both cases, employed as dry fod- 
der for cattle, &c. 

As the farmers in that country have generally adopted the excel- 
lent practice of soiling their working cattle and horses, more dung 
is accumulated than where pasturing is generally practised ; this 
with a very general use of lime, which excites a hasty and unna- 
tural fermentation and decomposition of the animal and vegetable 
matters found in the soil, may, under such severe systems of crop- 
ping, keep up the fertility of the grounds. But it is evident, that 
Avithout very unusual exertions, or the aid of extraneous enriching 
manures, little or no progressive improvement can be made. Indeed 
it would appear, that the soil is far more likely to become worse 
than better, by the system of management generally employed in 
Scotland. 

It seems that beans are employed on light, as well as on clay 
lands, in both the favourite rounds adopted in Scotland. How much 
better then would be, first, beans drilled on a grass lay well manur- 
ed; second, barley; third, clover; fourth, wheat; fifth, speargrass; 
sixth, ditto. By this arrangement, half the farm would be annual- 
ly in grass ; large stocks of cattle, &.c. might be kept at the least 
possible expense ; the land would soon be so enriched ; that not- 
withstanding there would be less ground annually ploughed, the 
products of the cultivated crops would be much more considerable 
than under the present system of management. As a soil may be 
made too rich for growing small grain, it is by no means improbable 
that after the grounds have been sufficiently enriched, the last 
crop of speargrasses might be safely omitted, and the fallow crop 
commenced on a speargrass lay, which had been only one year 
mowed or pastured. This arrangement would change the round to 

3 R 



498 

three cultivated crops, and two of grass in five years. It is pre- 
sumed that this might be done without diminisliing the live stock, 
as it is believed that two acres of grass grounds high \ enriched, 
will yield quite as much, or perhaps more gross than three which 
had been made only moderately fertile. It matters not, however, 
what the cultivated crops are, or what the course of crops may be, 
provided a proper change in vegetation be attended to, and grass 
crops enough intervene betw-eii the cultivated crops, to enable 
him to make and keep the soil .sufficiently rich to grow the crops 
that best suit his purpose. Care, however, should be taken to avoid 
growing exhausting plants, when others that are less so may be made 
to answer quite as well, and no question but it may often happen 
that they will be found more lucrative. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 

observations on the different classes of farmers in limited circumstances : also 
on the injurious error of occupying more land than can be cultivated pro- 
perly, by the capital employed Uemarks on the ruinous [iractices too g^en- 
ewJly pursued by tenants in this country : also on the measures to be taken 
to prevent these evils Two distinct systems of mang'ement, recommended 
to be practised by the circumscribed cultivator. The extensive usefulness 
of the grasses when employed by the circumsci-ibed farmer for manure, ex- 
plained. Also, how they should be arplied and managed by him. How the 
soil is ameliorated by a turnip crop. On growing potatoes on grass lays witli* 
out dung. 

It has been before observed, that the farmer, whether he be rich or 
poor, may grow any cultivated crops that best suit his purpose, pro- 
vided he occupies no more land than is consistent with the means 
employed to cultivate it, and a sufficiency of grass crops intervene. 

There are several dillerent grades of farmers, who do not employ 
a sufficiency of capital to cultivate their grounds very advantage- 
ously : First, those who are really wealthy, but as this wealth con- 
sists principally in lands, their monied capital is too circumscribed 
to cultivate them to advantage. Many of these gentlemen may be 
well aware of this ; but the trouble and perplexity arising from the 
too generally destructive practices of tenants in this country, may 
induce them to keep the whole in their own hands. Secondly, those 
who add farm to farm in place of cultivating the grounds they al- 
ready possess, properly. Thirdly, those who build extensive barns 
and dwelling-houses, before they have provided a sufficient stock of 
cattle, &c. to farm properly. Fourthly, those who prefer hoarding 
up the money saved by rigid economy, or putting it out on interest, 
to employing it on their farms. It is certain that more money can- 
not add to the happiness of the last mentioned cultivators, as they 
already possess much more than is properly applied by them. The 
community, however, is interested in the better cultivation of the 
soil occupied by them. 

The fifth and most extensive class of circumscribed farmers are 
those who are actually poor. It is to this class of cultivators that I 
shall principally apply my subject, as in doing this the others will be 
equally \yell informed of the best means of ordering their limited 
establishments, as they would be, if what is advanced were imme- 
diately addressed to them. There can be no essential difference 
in the practice of those who cannot and those who do not furnish 
sufficient capital to cultivate the soil in the most advantageous way; 
unless it be that, arising from the great disproportion of funds em- 
ployed, where such a multitude of cultivators are concerned. This, 
however, introduces no serious difficulty, if the general principles 



500 

by which the circumscribed farmer should govern his practice be 
kept in view; and he carefully employ his agricultural funds t© 
the best advantage in the manner or way which these principles 
require. 

We too generally see that farmers who are scarcely able to cul- 
tivate twenty acres of ground as it ought to be done, are seldom 
content with one hundred; although they might thrive on the for- 
mer, and but too generally continue poor on the latter. This fatal 
error has induced many of tliem to make extensive clearings. As 
this has been done, and the country as well as themselves is highly 
interested in their welfare, and the improvement of the soil occu- 
pied by them, they should be made acquainted with that mode of 
management and cultivation, best calculated to promote valuable 
crops, and improve the fertility of the soil. 

The owners of land in England act wisely. They will not rent to 
those who have not a sutficiency of capital to do justice to the soil. 
This is too seldom considered in America, and the soil is ruined of 
course. Hence it is, that the prejudiced or superficial observer, as- 
serts that the soil and climate in this country are incapable of pro- 
ducing such luxuriant crops as are grown in England, than which 
nothing can be more erroneous ; yet we see that as soon as a culti- 
vator from that country arrives, he is persuaded by our own country- 
men, and also by too many books written here, that he must not sow 
or plant as much seed as he sowed or planted in England, Ireland, 
or even on the poor heaths of the Highlands of Scotland. 

So completely is this error established, that I never knew but 
one cultivator from either of those three countries, who had obser- 
vation and resolution sufficient to act contrary to this very absurd 
but at the same time fatal delusion. 

But to return. It would be far better to keep up the fences, and 
leave the grounds to nature, than to place them in the hands of men 
whose system of farming insures destruction. Nature in this highly 
favoured country speedily covers even thin soils with white clover, 
and better grounds areas quickly covered with superior grasses. The 
decay of these will gradually enrich the land. If cattle be admitted, 
and not suftered to carry oft' in the evening the greater part of what 
they have gathered in through the day, the grounds will be sooner en- 
riched : provided a good covering of the grasses be always pre- 
served.* 

• By passing through the body of animals, the food eaten by them is highly 
incorpoi-ated with animal matter These are very far richer, and afford much 
more food for plants than vegetable substances ; especially if the animal who 
makes the manure is fat or in good condition. The urine made by the cattle is 
.also very enriching. The vegetation eaten and elaborated by them while 
green, returns much mere to the land, than can do the grasses when suffered 
to rot on the soil. As in first drying, and after this decaying, very much of the 
nutriment contained in them is exhaled and washed away by heavy rains- No 
question but there is a loss m dung, &c. dropped by the cattle while pastu- 
ring ; but this is far less than happens in the too usual mode of management, 
when pasturing is properly ordered, as will be more fuUy explained presently. 



501 

Some gentlemen in their mistaken zeal to etablish the invaluable 
practice of soiling, wish us to believe that the manure promiscuously 
dropped by cattle when the grasses are pastured does but little 
good, the reverse of this, however, is true. 

To prove their erroneous theory, they have cited commons that 
had remained open a great length of time, and still continued as 
poor as they were, so far back at least, as the memory of man could 
trace their comparative situation. 

These writers, however, should have recollected that the com- 
mons were always overstocked ; so much so, that the little grass pro- 
duced by them was constantly cut olF as close by the ground as it 
was possible for hungry horses, cattle, sheep, &,c. to bite ; that the 
greater part of the little which these animals gathered through the 
day, was carried off by them in the evening; that the dung left by 
them on the grounds, lay exposed, without the least shelter from the 
tops of the grasses, to the injurious effects of the sun and air ; that 
much of the juices from it, which would sink into an open free soil, 
well covered by the tops of the grasses, was washed away by the 
rains, &c. in consequence of the ground being greatly consolidated 
by the feet of the multitude of animals, who were continually rov- 
ing over them in search of a better bite. 

Time will clothe thin soils with a scanty covering of grass, even 
when exposed to almost every disadvantage : still the tops of the 
plants being (in the case now under consideration,) eaten off close to 
the ground, so soon as it is possible for hungry animals to crop them, 
they become too debilitated to act in energetic consort with their 
roots : thus the latter become equally as debilitated as the former; 
consequently the vegetation within the soil can be no better than 
that above it. 

The grounds therefore, in despite of every effort made by nature, 
are compelled, by the mismanagement of man, to continue poor. 
However, as he does not see the causes which produce this effect, 
he plunges still deeper into error by drawing false conclusions 
from what has happened. He might, however, have observed, that 
only one year's pasturing in this way* of the richest meadow, will 
debilitate the roots as well as the tops of the plants so much, as 
greatly to curtail the product of the ensuing year. 

Yet we see too many farmers suffer their live stock to eat of the 
grasses on their meadow grounds, as close as it can well be done, 
until vegetation is locked up by frost. Some are not content even 
with this ruinous practice : they turn in their cattle, horses and 
sheep again in the spring to graze, for some considerable time be- 
fore the fields are shut up to grow grasses for hay. 

When a good covering of the tops of the grasses is continually 
preserved, the health and vigour of the roots are maintained ; they 
spread deep and wide through the soil. This covering greatly 
shields the dung and urine, made by the cattle, from the injurious 
influence of the sun and air; it also opens and expands the soil, so 
that more of the juices sink into it when washing rains occur: es" 



502 

pecially as the progress of the water is considerably retarded by 
the opposition it meets from the covering of grass. The grosser 
particles of the dung naturally adhere to this mass of vegetation ; 
it also affords ample food and shelter for animalcula, and the ani- 
mal matter introduced by them is considerable. 

If the dung dropped by the cattle, be broken into pieces, and 
spread over the soil, the latter must be much more benefited in 
proportion to the quantity of manure, than by top dressing in the 
usual way : provided a suitable allowance be made for the loss in 
that part of the manure, which may happen to be dropped by the 
cattle, where it can be of but little and sometimes of no benefit to 
the grounds. 

The cause of this is evident, one half the nutritive properties of 
the dung commonly used for top dressing, is lost by fermentation 
and decomposition before it is applied. 

Notwithstanding, however, it is very erroneous to assert that the 
manure dropped by cattle in pasture does little or no good, it is 
evident that the dung which may be saved from the same number 
of cattle, when soiled, very far exceeds, in usefulness, that which 
may be obtained by pasturing ; so much so, that the comparative 
value of the latter is trivial indeed, if the former be properly ap- 
plied and managed ; still, the manure returned to the soil by pas- 
turing is highly important to the cultivator, when that practice is 
properly managed : as the grounds will not only furnish a regular 
supply of the grasses for his cattle, without any addition to the 
manure dropped by them, but will also be gradually enriched by 
this practice. 

But notwithstanding these invaluable purposes may be obtained 
from pasture grounds, and that too with the least possible labour ; 
yet where population and capital will admit soiling to be joined 
with a regular and judicious convertible husbandry, this practice 
should be adopted ; as it will not only introduce more and far better 
grasses, but it also improves the soil as much, or perhaps more, in 
ten or twelve years, than can be done in half a century by the for- 
mer practice, and at the same time it greatly increases the product 
of cultivated crops. 

But to return to the renters of land. It is certain that if the 
plough and axe be not liznited, the soil will be much sooner ruined, 
and the timber destroyed, even in the back-woods, than the owners 
of land in this country appear to conceive. If they were sensible 
of the impending evil, we might naturally suppose, measures would 
be taken to prevent the injury. Proper leases, with strict regard to 
their fulfilment, would generally effect this invaluable end. The 
inconsiderate farmers who till their own grounds would be stimu- 
lated to a better practice, by observing that their neighbours, whose 
leases compelled them to farm properly, were doing much better 
than themselves, who had no rent to pay. 

The amount of the moderate rent, which is generally exacted in 
this country, may be readily sunk by the mismanagement of those 



503 

who till their own grounds. Although rents are low, it would be 
much better to reduce them considerably on improving leases. 
This would, in a few years, entirely change the face of the soil, 
which is at present too generally haggard and impoverished, by in- 
cessant ploughiug and cropping, with scarcely any attention to 
grass or manure. The advantage gained by the improvement of 
the grounds would greatly exceed, not only the abatement in the 
rent, but also the whole amount of it. 

The farmer whose capital is too limited to keep a stock of cattle, 
proportionate to his soil, will find incalculable advantage in a su- 
perabundance of the grasses. In fact, they are the only means 
which he can employ to enable him to farm profitably, or that can 
prevent the ultimate ruin of his soil. Unless he live in the vicinity 
of a market for his produce, from whence he may in return bring 
back enriching manure. 

Grass seeds come high if they be annually bought: still a small 
sum will enable him to purchase a sufficiency of those best suited 
to his purpose; from which he may grow his own seed. A little 
practice will teach him how to sow it in the chaff', which will 
greatly abridge his labour. 

When grasses abound they will so far exceed the necessary 
quantity for his limited stock of cattle, that his soil will be con- 
stantly well clothed with this invaluable vegetation. The con- 
tinual decay of it will enrich his grounds, besides supplying a full 
grown crop of grass to be ploughed under the soil as manure for 
every fallow crop grown by him. 

The increased product obtained by this simple and rational prac- 
tice will greatly overpay the trivial cost of the grass seed, also of 
the gypsum which may be found necessary to excite luxuriant 
crops of red clover on his thinner soils. 

No system of management which promises lasting success and 
improvement can be cheaper than this, or be effected with near so 
little labour. In fact it is exactly calculated to promote the ease 
and tranquillity of an indigent cultivator, and finally to enrich him. 
By this simple and cheap means he may gradually and regularly 
increase his live stock with scarcely any perceptible expense, until 
the number of them becomes equal to the extent of soil cultivated 
by him. 

The usual mode of random cultivation and improvement is not, 
however, calculated to effect this invaluable end. To do this with 
certainty, and without perplexity and confusion, two regular, but 
very different systems of management, should be pursued by the 
circumscribed farmer. First, his farm yard matiure s'lould be libe- 
rally spread for fallow crops, so far as it will extend This portion 
of his soil ought to be regularly cultivated in the same way as 
wealthy farmers should cultivate their grounds. As live stock and 
manure increase, additions ought to be made to this portion of his 
management until the whole of his farm be reduced to one perfect 
system of economy. This mode of management will not only pre- 



504 

vent perplexity, but also excite his emulation to excel even his 
more wealthy neighbours in this portion of his grounds. It will 
alvSo clearly convince him of the value of good husbandry. This 
will naturally cause him to hasten the improvement of the whole 
of his farm by every rational means within the compass of his abi- 
lity. The very luxuriant and profitable crops obtained by this> way 
"will excite his neighbours to follow his laudable exan»ple. The 
remainder, and by far the great part, of his grounds should be sub- 
jected to a regular and very lenient course of cropping. Every 
fallow crop ought to be manured by turning under as full grown a 
crop of the grasses as the soil is capable of producing. 

His fallow crops grown without dung on the best of his grounds 
may be potatoes, maize, &c. On his grounds of more inferior qua- 
lity his fallow crops should be peas, beans, &c. One crop of small 
grain may, unless the grounds be too poor,* succeed each fallow 
crop, with grass seed sown on it. The grounds must be continued 
three years in grass before they are again turned up for another 
round of crops. 

The stubble crop of grasses should be suffered to grow and 
rot on the soil. A good covering of all the grasses ought to be 
continually preserved, and great care taken to increase the size of 
this covering to the greatest possible extent before severe frost 
sets in. 

Such grounds as are too poor to produce two crops previously to 
their being laid down in grass, should be prepared and sown in 
small grain, in the way that has been recommended in my book on 
Cultivation, and grass seed sown on the grain. They should not 
bo mowed, but may be pastured, if a good covering of the grasses 
be always preserved. Thpy ought to lie three years in grass be- 
fore they are again cropped.! 

If from too frequent use of gypsum without enriching manure, or 
any other cause, it is found that part of the farmer's poor grounds 
cannot be excited by that substance so as to produce valuable crops 
of red clover, they ought to be sown on one ploughing, with such 
seeds as are best calculated to produce a good green crop on 
them. This should be turned under the soil; and, after the 
grounds have been prepared in the way before recommended, small 
grain sown for a crop, to be gathered, and red clover sown on it. 
The clover ought not to be mowed, but it may be pastured and 
managed as above directed, for three years; after which the sod 

• In this case no fallow crop should be taken. One crop of small grain will 
be found fully as much as such grounds ought to gTow before they are re- 
turned to, or sown in grass. 

t Here I beg leave to observe, there are some grounds that seem to be very 
poor which, when manured by gypsum, will grow good crops of red clover. 
On such grounds, by the proper use of the clover turned under for manure, 
the farmer may grow a lenient f:\llow crop, to be followed by small grain ; this, 
however, should be sown in the spring, as winter grain is much more liable 
to be chilled by the severities of the winter in poor than in richer gi'ounds. 



505 

may be again turned up for a crop of gmall grain, to be followed by 
clover. The soil should be subjected to this lenient course of 
cropping until it becomes sufficiently rich to bear two crops before 
it is restored to grass. 

When the soil is capable of producing grass, no other green crop 
should be ploughed under for manure. The grasses cost nothing 
but their seed and the little labour of sowing them, unless the soil 
be too thin to produce clover without the use of gypsum. In that 
case, however, the cost of the gypsum will not be any thing like 
equal to the necessary cultivation, and seed for a green crop, ob- 
tained by sowing even buckwheat 

If we may determine the comparative value of this plant and 
clover, when turned under green for manure, by the apparent nu- 
triment contained in each of them, we have every reason to believe, 
that a green crop of clover will introduce much more than double 
the quantity of nutritious matter for plants, than a crop of buck- 
wheat. It would, also, seem that when the ground is good enough 
to grow the speargrasses, the advantages obtained for ploughing 
them with their roots under the soil, will be at least equally great, 
if not greater, than is derived from clover used in the same way. 
The celebrated Arthur Young has informed the farmers in England, 
that tares, sown in September on one ploughing, are cut off in time 
to sow buckwheat on one ploughing, and that if the lattei be turned 
under for wheat, " It is not in the power of science, of theory, or 
practice to introduce a system more round and complete."* As we 
cannot determine what may or may not be " in the power of science, 
of theory, or practice,''^ this assertion is as unguarded as it is con- 
trary to a judicious system of agriculture. The practice, how- 
ever, may be partially useful in England, where gypsum does not 
generally act powerfully, and the prevailing attachment to old grass 
grounds, has induced the farmers there, to grow by far too many 
cultivated crops, on their fields subjected to the plough, before the 
grasses intervene. 

Grounds managed in this way seem to require, in addition to the 
manure furnished by the live stock, more assistance than is gene- 
rally obtained there, by turning under a clover lay, too commonly 
after the plants have been greatly run out, and the tops have been 
either mowed or closely pastured. 

Notwithstanding their old grass grounds, and an extensive culti- 
vation of turnips, enable them to gather and apply much manure, 
the number of cultivated crops grown on that part of their grounds 
subjected to the plough, together with the manure applied in top 
dressing the grass grounds which are mowed, render that article, 
great as the quantity at first sight may appear, scanty, when ap- 
plied to all the necessary purposes which their mistaken idea of 
agriculture requires. 

Yet the writers on husbandry, in this country, too generally urge 

• See Mr. Bordley's book on Husbandry. 
3 S 



506 

us to adopt the errors of England ; particularly the supposed ame- 
liorating practice of growing turnips. Thej should, however, have 
considered, before they became so zealous, in what they, no doubt, 
believed a good cause, how the soil is ameliorated in England by 
a turnip crop. If this had been done, they would have discovered, 
that any plant cultivated by us which produces food either for man 
or domesticated animals, would be at least equally ameliorating as 
the turnip, if cultivated and used in the same way. 

The British agriculturist who does not exhaust his soil applies 
dung for the turnip crop, and very many of the cultivators in that 
country feed them off on the ground where they grew. This returns 
to the soil all the nutriment afforded by the turnip. Now after all 
this has been done, we do not hear that the cultivator complains 
that the small grain, grown after this very expensive system of ma- 
nuring, is injured by being too luxuriant. 

Here it may be proper to remark, that it is far from my inten- 
tion to depreciate this valuable plant ; or to intimate that it is not 
useful in Great Britain, where it is generally believed maize cannot 
be grown : especially as a mistaken system of management re- 
quires more manure than can be obtained from their old grass 
o-rounds, aided by a clover lay, as often as this grass intervenes in 
the general system of cultivation pursued in that country. 

The two distinct systems of management, recommended to be 
pursued by the circumscribed cultivator on the same farm, will not 
only be very profitable to him, but also highly interesting to agricul- 
ture. They will clearly determine the comparative value of the 
dung and the grasses, when each of them is separately, and sys- 
tematically employed as manure for the soil : also how far we may 
solely depend on the grasses for promoting good crops, and at the 
same time improving the soil. Of this we know, at present, but 
little, as the application of them has hitherto been mixed with the 
intervening use of other enriching manure; or else the grounds 
have been too severely cropped, before the application of the grasses 
for manure had been repeated. 

The mode of management recommended to the circumscribed 
farmer, was not adopted by me until my removal to the back-woods. 
My stock of cattle has since then been very deficient, when com- 
pared with the extent of cleared grounds which has happened to 
fall into my hands, very much exhausted by perpetual ploughing 
and cropping. 

I have, however, been sufficiently informed of the value of the 
tops and roots of grasses, when applied for manure, to be fully con- 
vinced that if a proper system of management be pursued, they may 
be rendered invaluable to the farmer, whose limited capital will 
not admit him to keep a sufficient stock of cattle. By the proper 
use of them, he may, no question, annually increase the product 
and fertility of his soil : also, gradually increase the number and 
value of his live stock, with far less labour than is employed in the 
present mode of management pursued by circumscribed farmers. 



507 

That part of his management which has the advantage of farm 
yard manure, will be very inconsiderable in the beginning. It will, 
however, be much more productive than that which depends on the 
tops and roots of the grasses alone. The only difference in the la- 
bour, will be hauling and spreading the manure, together with the 
destruction of more weeds, introduced and excited by the dung, 
and gathering more productive crops. 

No question, however, but the product of the crops from the 
grounds manured with the tops and roots of the grasses alone, will 
very greatly exceed that which could be obtained from the same 
land by the too general random practice of circumscribed farmers : 
even admitting that the whole of the dung made by their scanty 
live stock, be applied in their irregular and exhausting system of 
management. It is also evident, that the labour generally employed 
by them, greatly exceeds that which will be found necessary to ex- 
ecute the system proposed. 

Red clover will certainly far better suit the circumscribed farmer, 
than the speargrasses, except on that portion of his soil where farm 
yard manure has been spread, or where the grounds are naturally 
rich, and have not been exhausted. 

Luxuriant crops of this grass may be readily excited by gypsum ; 
and while the soil is kept well stored with vegetation, a free use of 
that substance cannot be injurious. It may now be obtained in any 
part of Pennsylvania, where the roads are only tolerable, so as to 
cost less than any other manure that is equally valuable. Notwith- 
standing that frequent mowing through the season, or close pas- 
turing, weakens the lateral roots of red clover, and the taproots are 
thrown out by frost, it would seem if the stubble crop be suffered to 
grow and rot on the soil, and no more than the first crop be annu- 
ally mowed, and after this a good covering of grass be preserved, 
that the lateral roots will continue much more vigorous than when 
this plant is managed in the usual way : of consequence, it is far 
less subject to be destroyed by frost or the scorching rays of the 
sun. 

It appears from the long and vigorous continuation of many of 
the plants that survive, age cannot be justly considered the cause 
of the early death of the greater number of them. This seems to 
proceed from their being exposed by frequent mowing and close 
pasturing, to the injurious effects of frost, and the scorching rays of 
the sun. Nature has not formed the plant to withstand frequent 
mutilation, any thing like so well as the speargrasses. We also 
see that even brambles, hardy weeds and sprouts, from the roots of 
trees, are often destroyed by being frequently cut off" near to the 
ground by the scythe. We may also observe that while the lateral 
roots of red clover continue healthy, that they hold the taproots so 
firmly in the ground, that the plant maintains its natural position, 
even when the soil around it is heaved up so high by frost, that the 
crown of the plant stands in a hollow formed by the expansion of 
the ground : likewise, that when a general thaw takes place, and the 



508 

soil sinks, the taproot maintains its natural position in the ground, 
and the plant remains unhurt. 

This is best seen when the plants are young in the stubble crop, 
the first winter and spring after the seed was sown. It should, how- 
ever, be observed, that it sometimes happens that when red clover 
has been sown on buckwheat, that many of the plants are heaved out 
by the frost of the ensuing winter and spring. In this case, it ap- 
pears that the roots of the plant do not become sufficiently large and 
strong before frost puts a stop to their growth. 

When potatoes are grown by the circumscribed farmer, on his 
best grounds, with the grasses turned under for manure, and the 
grass crop be a good one, it will be best to plant the sets by trench 
ploughing, as directed in my book on Cultivation. This will save a 
considerable part of the manure arising from the tops and roots of 
the grasses from waste, when the crop is gathered. It will remain 
safe at the bottom for the growth of small grain, and grasses follow- 
ing the potatoes. 

The plants may be arranged agreeably to Mr. Watson's practice, 
described in my book on Cultivation. So soon as the size of them 
will admit, they should be thinned, leaving but one of the most thrif- 
ty growing from each set. In pulling up the supernumerary plants, 
great care should be taken to remove the roots, otherwise they will 
grow from the stubs left behind, and being mutilated, injure the crop 
more than if no attempt had been made to remove them. If Mr. 
Watson's plan be adopted, the number of the plants remaining after 
the crop has been thinned, will be more than some farmers consider 
sufficient, when farm yard manure has been applied for that crop. 
As this gentleman planted on thin pasture grounds fed bare, and 
some of his potatoes grown in that way, weighed one pound, wheat 
or barley may safely follow this crop, when it is grown on a good 
soil well manured by the tops and roots of grasses. Grass seeds 
should be sown on the small grain, and the grounds remain tliree 
years in grass before they are again turned up for a fallow crop. 

The early and vigorous growth of the plants, as well as the pro- 
duct of the crop, will be greatly promoted by rolling the sets in gyp- 
sum, while the moisture arising from cutting them is fresh on the 
set. They should be spread out to dry, and great care taken not to 
handle them till planted, so that the gypsum be not rubbed off". 

If lime can be readily procured, and the cultivator's capital will 
admit the use of it, the product of the potato, and also the grasses 
following it, together with the improvement of the soil, will be 
greatly promoted by spreading thirty bushels of it to the acre, and 
incorporating it with the surface of the soil, in the way recommend- 
ed in my book on Cultivation. If this be done, it is considered best 
not to thin the potato plants, except where more than two may hap- 
pen to grow from each set ; provided the soil be a good one, and a 
luxuriant crop of grass has been ploughed under for manure. 

If stones, stumps, deficiency of proper instruments, or any other 
cause, prevent trench ploughing, the potato sets may be planted in 



509 

the usual way, by turning the sod with a good crop of grass over 
them. In this case the furrow slices should be leveled with the roll- 
er, and well pulverised with the hoe harrow or skim, with the tined 
harrow following lengthwise of the furrows, as deep as it can be 
readily done, without disturbing the sets, or turning up the sod. 
If this be not done, and the ground is close bound by the roots of 
the grasses, many of the plants will spend much of their time and 
strength in growing under the sod before they can either penetrate 
it, or find their way out through the seams formed by the furrow 
slices, and the crop will be greatly curtailed. 

As the potato sets cannot be covered by the plough in spots which 
obstacles render inaccessible to it, and the extent of those spots will 
not be determined, until after the rest of the field be planted, the puU 
verising of the soil, should be deferred until the vacancies be planted 
by covering the sets with the sod turned over them with the hand 
hoe. Care should be taken to turn the sod well over them and 
around the obstacles, and at a proper depth. As this cannot be 
done without cutting the sod into small pieces, the implements by 
which the soil is pulverised, should be lifted over those spots in 
passing through the field, otherwise the short pieces of sod will be 
turned up. By the time the crop requires cultivation, the sod will 
be considerably consolidated by rain, and the roots of the plants ; 
consequently if care be taken in passing through those places, many 
of them will not be turned up by the skim, if that instrument be 
sharp. 

VVhen the covering and roots of the grasses are insufficient to pro- 
duce valuable crops of potatoes, with a crop of small grain and grasses 
after it, the circumscribed farmer may bring his cornstalks, straw, 
leaves and offal vegetable matter, into valuable use. As, however, the 
fermentation and decomposition of these dried substances progress 
slowly when they are not saturated with the juices of the cattle 
yard, they, together with the scanty growth of the grasses, may 
not be sufficient to expand and divide the covering among the sets, 
as it ought to be done for an advantageous growth of this root, if 
the crop be planted by trench ploughing. In that case, the corn- 
stalks, &c. should be spread over the lay, and the sets covered in 
the usual way, by turning the sod with these substances and the 
tops of grass, over them. The farmer, however, should be careful 
to have them so far decomposed, before they are applied for the 
crop, as will render them as useful to the grain and grasses follow- 
ing, as can be expected after the loss sustained by ploughing them 
up, when the potatoes are gathered. If this be not done, the more 
solid remains of these dried substances will be dragged up in heaps, 
or spread over the surface by the harrow, when the small grain is 
sown. In this state they will perish and afford but little nutriment 
for plants. 

But when these substances are applied for such fallow crops as 
may be gathered, without turning up the soil, they may be ploughed 
under without any further decomposition, than will render them 



510 

sufliciently flexible to admit the application of enough of them. 
Some of these substances will be sufticientlj flexible to be turned 
under when soaking wet ; still a much greater quantity, even of 
these, can be applied after fermentation has introduced a great 
heat, as this causes them to become much more compact. A shaded 
situation, where rain has access, is most favourable to a general and 
rapid fermentation of them. The heaps ought to be formed so as 
to admit sufficient moisture and air to pass generally through them. 
To effect this, they should not be heaped up high, nor placed in hol- 
lows where the water will lodge in sufficient quantity to retard or 
prevent fermentation. 

Dried or green weeds which have perfected their seed, are very 
improper manure for a potato crop. Ploughing up, or otherwise 
gathering the product, spreads the seeds of the weeds through the 
soil as if sown for a crop. This will greatly injure the small grain 
and grasses following. 

Thej may, however, be very safely and profitably applied for 
such fallow crops as can be gathered without turning up the manure. 

As the unavoidable evils introduced by ploughing out a potato 
crop, especially where many seeds of weeds are incorporated with 
the manure, form a very striking constrast between the usual culti- 
vation, and that recommended by me, I wish the reader here again 
deliberately to consider, that not on\y the potato crop, but also every 
fallow crop cultivated in the usual way, subjects the farmer to great 
loss in manure by turning it up during the cultivation of the plants. 
The same also happens when the soil is prepared for the small grain 
following that crop. The seeds of the weeds are likewise turned 
up and spread abroad to poison the small grain, and grasses follow- 
ing it. But this is not all ; after expending much useless labour to 
effect this very injurious purpose, and also to mangle the fallow 
plants, the soil is not kept any thing like so open and mellow, for 
the ready admission of the roots of the plants, as when this purpose 
is effected by fermentation alone. A well directed fermentation is 
also the most powerful and least expensive agent, that can be em- 
ployed in the destruction of weeds. 



CHAPTER L. 

Instructions for growing turnips and maize on grass grounds, witliout the use 
of dung. Also, for cultivating fallow crops, sown broad cast, to be follow- 
ed by small grain. The economy of buckwheat considered, and whether it 
would not be better to sow it early in the spring, than at the usual time. It 
is shown that too free a use of the plough, and but little attention to g^ass 

« and rearing live stock, are the principal causes of the poverty, which, too ge- 
jierally, prevails among circumscribed farmers. Also, that building costly 

^welling-houses, barns, Etc. before a sufficiency of live stock has been intro- 
duced to farm to the best advantage, is, saying the least that can be said of 
it, a very injurious practice. 

A uRNiPs require a richer soil than either potatoes or maize ; 
therefore, this plant should not be cultivated by the circumscribed 
farmer, but on that portion of his grounds where farm yard manure 
is liberally spread, except the soil be recently cleared from its v^ood, 
or is deep and rich, and also covered by a luxuriant crop of grass. 

This should be turned under by trench ploughing, but not more 
than eight inches deep, lest the enriching matters may not be suf- 
ficient to excite a proper fermentation for the growth of this plant. 
The ground should be ploughed in time to admit sufficient fermen- 
tation of the vegetable substances to promote a rapid growth of the 
plants. If this be not done, they will be in imminent danger of be- 
ing cut oif by the fly before their rough leaves are formed. The 
proper management of this crop has been described in my book on 
Cultivation. 

The circumscribed cultivator may obtain good crops of maize 
from that portion of his grounds which cannot be dunged by him, 
unless they have been too much exhausted, and, at the same time, 
gradually enrich the land. In this case a good crop of grass should 
be turned under in the fall. This will secure the rich juices con- 
tained in the grasses: if ploughing be deferred until spring, a great 
part of these juices will be scattered in the air, or exhaled by the 
sun. Sec. As the weather may favour the growth of the grass, es- 
pecially of the hardy kinds, the furrow slices should be leveled by 
the roller, and the seams between them well closed with the tined 
harrow. If it be found that the grasses have grown so much as to 
promise injury to the crop, before the plants have grown large 
enough to be cultivated, they should be eradicated by the hoe har- 
row, with the tined harrow following it previously to planting. 

If the soil be a good one, it ought to be trench ploughed. It 
shoulil, however, be recollected, that notwithstanding the soil is 
good, turning it up eight inches deep, places that portion of it which 
is least favourable to vegetation uppermost : consequently the fur- 



512 

rows for planting had better exceed, than fall short of being three 
inches deep. 

The early growth, ripening, and product of the crop will be great- 
ly promoted by coating the seed well with gypsum. If that sub- 
stance cannot be had, a small handful of ashes spread over the seed 
in each cluster before it is covered, will produce nearly the same 
effect. If the ashes have been leached, the quantity should be in- 
creased. 

Practice seems to have determined that, when maize is planted in 
rows, five feet and a half is a good width for the intervals. Obser- 
vation also appears to favour this width, as on an average a full 
sized plant measures, as the leaves naturally hang, about four feet 
and a half across the widest part of it. The leaves, except those 
which may happen to get entangled, naturally incline toward tne 
intervals, in search of light, air and the nutriment gathered from 
the atmosphere. 

Not more than one plant should be left standing at the distance 
of eighteen inches apart in the rows, even when the soil is good, 
and prepared as above directed. This will introduce 5,280 plants 
to the acre, which are sufficient when either gypsum or ashes are 
applied. 

If, however, thirty bushels of lime be spread, and managed as 
explained in my book on Cultivation, two plants may be left stand- 
ing at the distance of two feet asunder in rows. This will intro- 
duce 7,920 plants to the acre. It should be observed that, where 
gypsum can be had, it will greatly increase the crops of small grain 
grown on the grounds that cannot be dunged, if the seed be well 
coated with this substance previously to its being sown.* 

The number of corn plants mentioned above, will be found too 
many for a soil that is not very good. If it be only middling, and 
the intervals five feet and a half apart, but one plant should be left 
standing at the distance of two feet in the rows. This arrangement 
introduces 3,960 plants per acre, which will be sufficient to grow 
thirty-five to forty bushels of shelled corn to the acre. In such 
grounds, six inches will be sufficiently deep for ploughing, where 
the tops and roots of the grasses alone are used for manure. If 
lime be spread and ordered in the manner before directed, two 
plants may be left standing at the distance of two feet and a half 
asunder in the rows. This introduces 6,336 plants to the acre, and 
these are sufficient to grow from sixty to sixty -five bushels of shell- 
ed corn per acre 

If the crop of grass, to be turned under for maize, be deficient, 
this ought to be made up by spreading either straw, leaves, corn- 
stalks, weeds, or other oftal vegetation in sufficient quantity, and 
turning them with the grasses under the soil. The dried vegetable 
matters will be better prepared to promote the growth of the plants 
by lying under the sod through the winter. 1 he farmer, however, 

* This has since been more fully explained, and the causes that produce this 
astonishing effect considered. 



513 

should remember, that if they are hard woody substances, such as 
cornstalks, &c. they cannot be ploughed under in large quantities, 
unless a sufficient decomposition has been previously effected. In 
either of the cases mentioned above, the maize shovild be followed 
by small grain, and grass seed sown on it. The grounds ought to 
remain three years in grass, managed as hasbeen pointed out, be- 
fore they are again turned up for fallow crops. 

Here it may be proper to observe, that maize is cultivated with 
less labour when planted in clusters at right angles, than when it 
is arranged in rows ; therefore, when the plants are not too nume- 
rous to be introduced at right angles in the usual manner it may 
he best to plant in this way. I have never seen corn ear or fill bet- 
ter than when it was planted at right angles, of from four and a 
half to five and a half feet asunder, even when four plants were ge- 
nerally left standing in each cluster at the wider distance. We 
certainly know too little of the proper arrangement of this plant : 
consequently have much yet to learn. It may, however, be proper 
to remark, that until mathematical precision governs our practice, 
at least in our fallow crops, but little of the proper arrangement of 
this, or any other, plant can be known. 

Beans and peas are unquestionably very lenient plants. Either 
may be cultivated on such soils as are too thin for more exhausting 
fallow crops, but are, at the same time, good enough to produce a 
profitable crop of them, and the small grain and grasses which 
should follow them. 

For these fallow crops the circumscribed farmer will also find his 
dried offal vegetable matters vety profitable manure, if the grasses, 
to be ploughed under for them, in the tall, are not found sufli- 
cient to promise profitable crops, and the improvement of the soil. 
Here I beg leave to observe that no round of crops can be justly 
considered profitable, unless the soil be actually ameliorated by 
the system pursued: more especially where the circumscribed far- 
mer is concerned; for he can have no rational prospect of suddenly 
recruiting the grounds, which his folly or avarice has exhausted. 

Cultivated fallow crops properly ordered are, without question, 
the best, and most profitable preparation of the soil for small grain. 
It, however, clearly appears, that the labour of planting, horse and 
hand hoeing, Sec. will frequently render it impossible for the cir- 
cumscribed farmer to pursue this invaluable practice, in that part 
of his grounds on which he may safely and profitably grow fallow 
crops without dung, to be followed by small grain, and the grasses 
after it. It therefore becomes necessary to point out how he may 
deviate from this better practice, without preventing the improve- 
ment of his grounds. 

The Albany and lady pea are lenient plants. Notwithstanding 
many assert that neither of them is profitable, I believe this opi- 
nion does not originate in any real deficiency in the plants them- 
selves, or in the climate. It seems to arise, too generally, either 
from an improper, or ineffectual cultivation, or an impoverished 

3 T 



514 

soil. It is, however, evident that the most prolific plants culti- 
vated by us, are, in general, still more uncertain and unproductive, 
when thej are no better treated. The cau8e of this is evident, for 
but few, if any, of these plants are capable of living on so little nu- 
triment. 

Buckwheat is considered by too many an exhausting plant, al- 
though it will live and produce crops on much less nutriment than 
most other plants. This su|ierior property seems to have induced 
many farmers to continue the growth of it, on such soils as would 
not grow plants which require more food, until they have become 
so much exhausted, that even crops of buckwheat worth cultivat- 
ing, could not be obtained from them: as this was the last plant in 
general use which did, or could find a scanty support in the soil, 
which folly or avarice had exhausted, the cultivator transfers the 
blame, originating in his own wretched mismanagement, to it. 

These facts seem to prove that buckwiieat may be justly ranked 
among the most lenient plants commonly cultivated by us. No 
question but peas and beans, or any other lenient plant, would be 
thought equally exhausting by these cultivators, if they had hap- 
pened to be as generally cultivated by them 

There is no plant that will not eventually exhaust the soil, when 
a system of management calculated to effect the evil is continually 
pursued. It is, however, equally evident, that there is none, tobacco 
rot excepted, that may not be grown without producing this inju- 
rious eftect, provided proper management be pursued. My country- 
men on the eastern shore of Maryland too generally blame tobacco 
and maize for impoverishing their soil. Fliey might, however, have 
readily obtained much greater products from both those and every 
other plant cultivated by them, and at the same time improved, in- 
instead of impoverishing the soil. 

In this I cannot be readily mistaken, as I lived forty-two years 
among them, and was not an idle spectator of the progress of farm- 
ing, after I became old enough to observe and reflect. 

The foliage of buckwheat seems to be well calculated to gather 
large supplies from the atmosphere. The body of the plant appears 
to consist of a much larger proportion of water than plants in ge- 
neral. This not only appears in the texture of it when green, but 
also in the straw after the crop is gathered. The slovenly practice 
of threshing out the grain on the soil where it grew, and leaving the 
straw to rot in heaps where it was threshed ,too commonly occurs; 
this clearly proves, that after the water contained in it has evapo- 
rated, the more solid contents of the straw are trivial indeed, when 
compared with the bulk which had at first appeared in the heaps. 
Hence it is, that farmers remark that buckwheat straw makes but 
little manure, t'hefcp, however, will eat it, so will horned cattle, 
especially if it be salted, and they cannot get salt in any other wav, 
therefore it may be profitably used in this way when the farmer's 
hay happens to fall short ; also for litters, as the open texture of it 
is well calculated to imbibe much of the juices of the cattle yard. 



515 

I have been induced to defend the character and economy of this 
plant, lest the ii)jurious, and as I believe very erroneous opinion of 
Its exhausting properties, might deter some cultivators from grow- 
ing it : also, that notwithstanrKng peas may be more profitable if 
sold for exportation, but little of them are consumed in our families, 
and (armers have not been accustomed to feed their live stock with 
them : whereas buckwheat is extensively and profitably used for 
both these purposes. The farifler has been accustomeJ to cultivate 
it, and the seed is much cheaper, and more readily procured, con- 
sequently he will greatly prefer sowing it broad cast, as a prepara- 
tory crop for small grain, provided it should be found equal to peas 
for that purpose. 

I believe buckwheat may be more profitably grown if sown early 
in the spring. This opinion, however, may or may not be correct, 
as I do not profess to have any considerable practical knowledge 
of the cultivation of the plant. 

1 also suppose that if more seeds were sown, the plants would 
branch less, and the blossom and seed more generally form at or 
about the same time, and on or nearer to the top of the plant : of 
consequence much less gram would be shattered before the crop 
was gathered and threshed out. But in this I may also be mis- 
taken ; still I consider it proper to recommend sowing, on a small 
scale, double the quantity of seed which is commonly sown, and 
increase or decrease this quantity as observation and experience 
may direct. 

Farmers say when buckwheat is sown early the blossom is killed 
with the sun They, however, very frequently complain, and not 
without cause, that the same happens when it is sown at the usual 
time. They also tell us that the excess of rain produces the same 
injurious effect, when the weather has been such, that the deficiency 
in the crop could not be attributed to the heat of the sun. The fact 
is, that the properties of this plant have been but little investigated. 
It is generally sown in this cuntry at random, on grounds not 
half cultivated, and very frequently too poor to grow any thing but 
it, or other plants that will live on very little nutriment. 

As it is generally believed that buckwheat by its very rapid 
growth and extensive shade destroys brambles, and other hardy ve- 
getation, better than any other crop that is sown broad cast, it is of- 
ten sown to etfect the double purpose of killing this vegetation, 
and producing a crop. However, so far as my observation has ex- 
tended, both purposes have been defeated ; neither it, nor any other 
plant with which I am acquainted, can be advantageously grown 
on grounds that have not been half cultivated : especially where 
brambles and other hardy vegetation abound. Much buckwheat 
is grown in the neighbourhood where I reside, on soils that have 
been exhausted by perpetual ploughing and cropping. When it is 
uot destroyed by an untimely frost, it and oats seem to be the most 
certain crops grown here on grounds of this description. The 
grain, however, when no injury has been done by frost, hangs much 



516 

thicker on the plants some years than others. This seems readily 
accounted for, without reverting to the injury that may be sometimes 
done by excess of rain or heat. The blossoms produced by this 
plant are very numerous : therefore it is to be expected that many 
of them will be abortive, unless the season happens to be very fa- 
vourable: especially if the soil, as commonly happens, be thin or 
poor. 

Buckwheat will withstand a considerable degree of frost while 
it is young, and is not easily destroyed. This is seen when farmers, 
as many of them term it, subdue the sod by growing it previously 
to planting maize, for it becomes a very troublesome weed among 
that crop. 

It has very frequently happened that good crops of buckwheat 
have been obtained by what are called volunteer plants coming up 
after the grounds where it had been grown the preceding year were 
ploughed for a spring crop. In consequence of a luxuriant growth 
of buckwheat before the spring crop was sown, the plants were 
suffered to remain. This, with various other facts founded on in- 
quiry and observation, have induced me to believe, that it would 
be better to sow that grain on a grass lay, prepared in the way 
that has been explained, as soon in the spring as it might be safely 
done, than to risk, by sowing it at the usual time, the frost which 
often happens in some climates in August, or even the untimely 
frosts that frequently occur in every climate in this country in the 
fall, and which, in every place where I have been, often injures, and 
sometimes destroys, the product of this plant. By sowing early 
in the spring, the crop might be removed in time to admit a proper 
cultivation with the hoe and tined harrow for seeding small grain 
in the fall. 

Maize will withstand more severe frost in the early part of the 
spring than buckwheat. For, so far as my observation extends, if 
the latter be stripped of the leaves formed when it penetrates the 
soil, before it forms branches, and leaves on them, it invariably 
dies: whereas maize is seldom destroyed by being cut off close to 
the ground by frost. This being the case, buckwheat cannot be 
safely sown as early in the spring as corn may be planted. It 
may, however, be safely sown at or about the usual time of plant- 
ing maize. 

It buckwheat cannot be profitably grown to prepare the soil for 
winter grain, it will certainly do this for the crops of small grain 
sown in the spring: provided the lay be prepared for it, and also 
for the small grain following it, in the way that has been recom- 
mended in my book on Cultivation 

Either the Albany or lady pea* sown broad cast will prepare the 
soil for winter grain, and the grasses following it, if the cultivation 
before described be pursued. In either case the good crops of the 

• So called on the eastern shore of Maryland : but, if my memory be correct, 
it is known in New Jersey by some other name. 



517 

grasses should be ploughed under for the fallow crop. If the 
grasses be deficient, this deficiency ought to be fully made up by 
dried offal vegetable matters, ordered in the way that has been 
explained. 

When it can be done without injuring the soil, the farmer should 
always take two cultivated crops before the grounds are laid down 
in grass. The cultivation of the first crop is vastly more expen- 
sive than that of the second ; especially where obstables obtain : of 
consequence the principal part of the profit arising from both crops 
is gathered from the last; particularly when a proper system of 
management is pursued, as this greatly reduces the expense of 
putting in the small grain. 

The cultivator, however, should never forget, that if the grounds 
be too poor to grow two crops without being made still poorer, no 
prospect of present advantage should induce him to grow more 
than one before they are returned to grass. 

The foregoing system of management may be safely and profit- 
ably pursued by the circuhiscribed farmer until his stock of cattle 
has been sufficiently increased to furnish dung enough to cultivate 
the whole of his farm in that way, which is much better calculated 
to increase his annual revenue. Until this can be done, he has no 
just cause to complain, as no business can be pursued to the utmost 
advantage without a sufficient capital to carry it on. 

In this country land is very cheap: an excellent ready cash 
market for the produce of the soil generally prevails. This offers 
every rational encouragement to the poor but industrious fanner, 
who depends principally on his own labour, and that of his family, 
for cultivating the soil occupied by him. He is but little affected 
by the high price of labour, or the idleness and insolence of work- 
men, which take place in every country where labour is scarce, 
unless the laws be oppressively severe. 

The principal reason why this class of farmers so seldom become 
wealthy, and but too frequently continue poor, is the desire of im- 
mediate returns from cropping, and the mistaken idea that the pro- 
fits to be derived from rearing live stock, progress too slowly to 
answer their purposes. This induces them to crop the soil yearly, 
with but little attention to grass or an increase of cattle, until their 
grounds become so much exhausted that rest is absolutely necessa- 
ry to procure crops worth gathering. The soil being greatly impo- 
verished, and the seeds of the grasses destroyed, as far as perpe- 
tual ploughing and cropping can effect this ruinous purpose, the 
grounds rest with no other covering, but that of some scattering 
and debilitated grass and weeds. This exposes the soil to the very 
injurious action of the sun, wind, washing rains and melting snows, 
"When such grounds are ploughed for crops, instead of being richly 
stored with grass roots, and well covered by their tops, scarcely 
any vegetation is found to replenish them, or to nourish the crops 
grown on them. 

These ruioous practices naturally introduce poverty of soil, and 



518 

its inseparable companion, poverty of purse. This, however, is not 
all, it entails on posterity the wretchedness introduced by their in- 
considerate forefathers, or an Herculean task to counteract the 
curse of poverty, which their negligence had introduced. Whether 
Satan is also the instigator of this evil, I do not presume to deter- 
mine, but certain 1 am, that it is much greater, (so far as farming 
be concerned,) than the curse entailed on the soil by the fall of 
Adam. That seems to consist simply in brambles and thorns, in- 
cluding in these, such other vegetation as would compel man to earn 
his bread by the sweat of his brow. This curse we may all see is 
irrevocable, but we may also, at the same time, observe, that if man 
complies with Heaven's mild decree, and removes those obstacles 
to the growth of plants, which better suit his purpose, agriculture 
flourishes, and his rational wants are abundantly supplied. 

But when the hand of folly introduces the additional curse of 
poverty on the soil, this insatiable monster, like Aaron's serpent, 
swallows all the rest. Even brambles, thorns, &c. (the mild chas- 
tisement of Heaven,) cannot prosper where poverty has obtained 
dominion over the soil, as may be readily seen, for this and every 
other vegetation grown on such grounds, looks sallow, starved, and 
debilitated. 

That man is inexcusable and ought to be punished for this sin 
against common sense, himself, his posterity, and the community in 
which he risides, is evident. 

Before this inconsiderate being enters the forest, glade or prai- 
ry, nature had been for ages enriching the soil for his use, in the 
way that has been described. The fertility of it might be preserv- 
ed and increased, even by the circumscribed farmer, if a system of 
agriculture calculated to keep the ground fully replenished with 
decaying animal and vegetable matter was practised, and due at- 
tention were paid to the augmentation of live stock, iti proportion 
to an increase of ability, instead of the ruinous practice of perpe- 
tual ploughing and cropping. 

Reason, alone, demonstrates this interesting fact. It has also 
been clearly proved by actual practice, in almost every neighbour- 
hood, by the successful enterprise of farmers, who commenced their 
business on lands bought on credit, and covered with timber, with- 
out any buildings on them, and with not more than a pair of work- 
ing cattle, and cows barely sufficient to supply the family with but- 
ter and milk. Nay, more, some who were not half as well stocked 
as this, have paid for their land, acquired an extensive stock of cat- 
tle, and become wealthy, although their mode of management was 
very inferior to that which has been proposed. They, however, in- 
creased their live stock in full proportion to the means furnished by 
the system of management employed by them. 

From first to last, they have been enabled to live better, and 
vastly more independently than those who relied principally on the 
plough. The cause of this is evident: milk, butter, cheese, wool, 
meat, hides and manure, are continually increasing. It is evident 



519 

ihat but little manure can be obtained in the beginning ; however, 
where that I'tik- is spread, the product is greatly increased, as is 
also the fertility of the soil for a succeeding crop, and the grasses 
following it. Where aplenty of good grasses and hay prevail, young 
cuttle will grow as much or more in one year, than they do in two 
when kept on pasture, fed bare during summer, and on straw through 
the principal part of the winter. 

It is considered proper to remark that, although many circum- 
scribed farmers, make considerable progress in increasing their live 
stock, their laudable enterprise, however, is too often suddenly 
checked, before they obtain half the number of domesticated ani- 
mals, necessary to the proper cultivation of their grounds. 

This evil originates in the prevailing error, that huge piles of 
stone and mortar, or boaids and scantling, are the best means that 
can be pursued by the cultivator to improve his farm. Hence it is, 
that we see almost in every part of Pennsylvania, where it is possi- 
ble to effect this mistaken improvement, extensive barns and dwell- 
ing-houses standing on farms, where we do not observe half the 
quantity of grass, or number of cattle, necessary for the proper cul- 
tivation of the surrounding soil. 

If a stranger to the habits of most of these farmers should hap- 
pen to have business witli one of them, he may knock at the front 
door of the mansion long before he is heard, unless impatience in- 
duces him to exceed the bounds of good manners, and he raps loud 
enough to be heard in the kitchen, where the farmer and his family 
commonly reside. The building of the huge house and barn h.id 
not only prevented the proper increase of his live stock, but also 
so drained his purse, that proper furniture could not be purchased 
for the dwelling-house ; or he finds, (what he might have known 
equally as well before he encountered this useless expense,) that 
the large fire-place in the kitchen, with the mouth of the bake- 
oven opening into it, renders that room, by far, the most convenient 
apartment for his family. The same fire that warms them, cooks 
their provision and prepares economical food for their milch cows, 
pigs, &c. Every otner thing is done there with as little labour and 
as much economy, as occurred before the castle was built. The 
labour necesssry to keep the big house and costly furniture, if the 
latter be also got, in proper order, is also saved, by letting the whole, 
or at least far the greater part of it, remain unoccupied by them. 

Now, although some may say the farmer erred greatly in build- 
ing a house, which either a deficiency of capital, or the previous 
habits of himself and family, rendered useless and unfit for them, 
no man of sense who understands the economy of farming, and is 
acquainted with the habits of full bred farmers generally, will blame 
the cultivator for promoting the ease and happiness of himself and 
fatnily, by living in the kitchen. 

The large barn will be found more useful to him than the big house. 
The advantages arising from it will, however, fall very far short of 
compensating for spending the money on it, which common sense, 



520 

unbiassed by custom, clearly determines should not have been done, 
at least until live stock, equal to the demand for manure, had been 
introduced. The introduction of an expensive establishment by 
the circumscribed farmer, is certainly as much opposed to reason, 
as if a merchant, whose capital is too circumscribed to carry on his 
business as it ought to be done, should expend the profits arising 
from it, in erecting extensive stores and costly buildings for his 
family, although he knew full well he could not fill the former, and 
that the previous habits and economy of himself and family, were 
opposed to being comfortably fixed in the latter. 

In fact, erecting such large expensive buildings is, in common, 
immediately opposed to the interest and happiness of the full bred 
farmer, even when his agricultural capital is not injuriously affected 
by the enterpise. The interest of the money expended on them, 
together with the necessary repairs of this extensive establishment, 
will much more than pay for simple cheap conveniences, which will 
answer all his purposes much better, so far as expensive barns and 
other costly out buildings be concerned. The large dwelling-house, 
&c. is exactly calculated to disturb his repose, and perplex himself 
and his family, and subject them to ridicule, unless they lay aside 
their economical habits, and introduce a proper number of domes- 
tics, to render this arrangement comfortable and respectable. This, 
however, is seldom done, as habit has taught full bred farmers gene- 
rally, to manage all their concerns with the least possible expense; 
consequently, living in the mansion-house is, in common, very incon- 
venient, and the doors of it are kept closed, except on some particu- 
lar occasion. As the owner does not like to encounter the bustle, 
expense and loss of time necessary to a sudden emergency, the 
visiter is generally ushered into the kitchen. Here he dines, sups 
or breakfasts with the cultivator, his family and workmen. 

As man can be happy only in his own way, this mode of manage- 
ment may please the farmer, who neither sees nor feels the impro- 
priety of it. He may, however, discover, when the evil cannot be 
removed, that after his death, his property will not be sufficient to 
enable him to do equal justice to his children, if the landed estate 
be kept in the family. If the farm be sold to effect this purpose, it 
is a hundred to one, whether it will sell for more money than it 
would have done if the building had been extended no further than 
simple real convenience required. The judicious purchaser does 
not expect an income from huge piles of buildings. On the contra- 
ry, he knows that the repairs necessary to keep them in proper con- 
dition, will be a continued tax on the income obtained from the 
soil. 

This puts me in mind of what I have been informed, happened 
not long since. A gentleman who traveled pretty often by a very 
wealthy farmer's house, with whom he was acquainted, had been 
often pressingly urged by the farmer to call and see him. 

As the farmer's dwelling-house, barn and other buildings were 
not only very extensive, but also made with the best materials that 



521 

part of the country could afford, it was reasonable to suppose that 
a man of such great wealth, who had encountered the expense of 
erecting those costly buildings, would also consider it proper to 
make at least decent preparation, to entertain such gentlemen as 
he knew lived well at home : more especially those who came in 
consequence of repeated and pressing invitations. 

Accordingly the gentleman called one morning, as he had to pass 
by the farmer's house, to spend the forenoon and dine with him. 

The horn was blown at the usual time. When the workmen had 
assembled, the gentlemen with them, the farmer and his family 
were all seated at the same table in the kitchen, and dined together 
on a dish composed of sour krout and salted pork. This, with a 
large crock of milk, formed the whole of the dinner, and from the 
latter each dipped up, with his own spoon, as much as he wished 
to use. 

Several years have elapsed since I was last on the eastern shore 
of Maryland. I did not, then, observe, that any improvement had 
been made in the general system of cultivation. There were, how- 
ever, some cultivators who had improved their mode of manage- 
ment very considerably. 

It is now a long time since the cultivation of tobacco was aban- 
doned in the neighbourhood where I was born, except by a few cul- 
tivators on a very contracted scale. Maize, followed by wheat, 
seem to be the general crops since tobacco was but little grown. 

The little dung made by the very scanty stock of cattle, was, 
while I lived there, commonly spread by the farmer on hill sides, 
or other poor spots in his extensive fields. Notwithstanding it is 
obvious that, be this article spread where it may, good certainly 
follows ; still as the quantity was very inconsiderable, and scatter- 
ed on different spots through large fields, but little perceptible be- 
nefit seemed to be derived from it. 

Many of the farms in that country are very extensive, and they 
are in general much larger than in Pennsylvania. After growing 
one crop of maize and a crop of wheat following it, the considerate 
farmer commonly lets his soil rest. It was of consequence partially 
covered by nature, with such debilitated grasses and weeds as she 
could grow on it. In very many instances, however, a naked fal- 
low, sown in wheat, was added to this system of management. As 
the grounds, on which this was grown, had been previously resting 
in grasses and weeds, the wheat crop was commonly better than 
that grown after the corn. 

Mr. Bordley rates fifteen bushels of corn to the acre, when he 
compares the value of this plant with that of the potato. It, how- 
ever, happened often while I lived there, that many did not obtain 
more than ten bushels to the acre, and some not as much. This gen- 
tleman in his book on Husbandry says, " A few years since it was 
generally believed that six bushels of wheat an acre, was a medium 
produce of a large extent of country, within the peninsula of Chesa- 
peake, but since then, till the Hessian fly took possession of the 

o jr 



522 

wheat growing there, the wheat culture was improved so as to gaia 
a larger produce in that district." From this gentleman's resi- 
dence there, and his talents, as well as from the observation made 
by myself, I am disposed to believe that he has not underrated the 
average product of that country. 

The soil there was originally at least as good as is commonly seen 
elsewhere. The obstacles to a ready and efficient cultivation are 
fewer than I have seen in anj other place. The bay, rivers and 
creeks are so situated, that tiie product of the soil may be sent to 
market with but trivial expense. The roads are level, easily made, 
and kept in repair. 

In fact, the country is capable of more extensive agricultural im- 
provement than any other known to me. The cultivators of the 
soil are generally intelligent, and many of them well informed. 
They know as well as do any other set of men in the world, that 
the system too generally pursued is a bad one. The curse of po- 
verty, however, was intailed on the soil by their predecessors. They 
were also early taught to live generously, and perhaps, in many in- 
stances, too profusely. This requires funds, therefore no system 
can or ought to be adopted by them, which would either abridge 
their crops, or require more money to put it into practice, than 
can be obtained without infringing on that system of hospitality, 
and social friendly intercourse, which habit has rendered essential 
to the happiness of themselves and their families. 

Now it would seem, that the practice of two distinct systemsof 
management, recommended to the circumscribed farmer, and an 
increase of live stock in proportion to an increased ability to effect 
this invaluable purpose, is at least better calculated to promote, 
and finally establish, a perfect system of husbandry on the eastern 
shore of Maryland, and perhaps in Virginia also, without abridging 
any of the cultivator's usual expenditures in his family, than any 
thing that has yet been proposed. 

It is well known, that those who give their grounds reftt until na- 
ture has covered them with debilitated grass and weeds, obtain 
more produce, in proportion to the size of their farms, than those 
who give too little attention to this useful practice : therefore, near- 
ly, if not quite, the same breadth of soil may be cultivated under 
the system, that has been recommended to be pursued by the cir- 
cumscribed farmer, as is now done. 

It is true that an extensive farm will require much clover seed 
and gypsum. If the farmer, however, gathers the former from his 
own fields, and sows it in the chaff, he will not feel the expense ; 
and the facility of water carriage will enable him to purchase gyp- 
sum at a very reduced price. 

It should also be recollected, that if the management be good, 
and there be no existing cause which may prevent the action of the 
gypsum, the grain crops will be considerably increased by the ma- 
jiure, arising from the tops ant! roots of the grasses. 

It is said there are soils and situations in which gypsum will not 



523 

act. It may be so, but it has acted, and that powerfully too, in every 
soil and situation where I have been ; unless the grounds were too 
wet, or else rich enough to effect sufficient fermentation and de- 
composition without the aid of this substance. It is also very ob- 
servable, that we are told of its acting on giounds where it had been 
formerly applied without effect: also, that it has ceased to act 
where it was formerly advantageously employed: likewise, that it 
is a " whimsical" substance. Judge Peters says, " 1 have ruined a 
bushel of plaster by a handful of salt."* Also, " plaster on moist- 
ened or steeped seed wheat, if it be not steeped in brine, has been 
useful."! In the Domestic Encyclopaedia, volume v. page 384, 
we are informed that, " one bushel of seed wheat was steeped 
twelve hours in pickle, and then rolled in plaster and sown 
through the middle of a field containing eleven or twelve acres: on 
each side of this, throughout the field, wheat was sown that had 
been rolled in plaster, but not pickled. The stems of the pickled 
seed were much superior in luxuriance. After measuring the pro- 
ducts of the pickled and unpickled seed, the owner affirmed it as 
his opinion, that if he had picicled the whole of the seed, his crop 
would have been increased thereby, not less than seventy or eighty- 
bushels." 

Such a multitude of contradictory theories, said to be founded on 
practice and observation, have appeared respecting the action of 
gypsum, that nothing certain can b« gathered from many of them. 

It is, however, well known tluit where it does act, the b.eneficial 
effects produced by it are invaluable. I would, therefore, advise the 
cultivator to try it on all soils and in all situations, unless the grounds 
be too wet ::J especially as [ am disposed to believe, notwithstanding 
all that has been said to the contrary, that this substance, if it be judi- 
ciously used, will act, and that powerfully too, in very many situ- 
ations and soils, and under a variety of circumstances, in which it 
has been confidently asserted that it will do no good. 

It would, however, be only prudent to try it on a small, but at 
the same time, persevering scale, in cases in which the use of it may 
have been rendered doubtful, by the discordant and contradictory 
theories that have appeared. 

But to return to the eastern shore farmer. The additional ex- 
pense to be encountered by him, will be the clover seed, gypsum, 
and gathering much more extensive crops. The means proposed to 
cultivate the soil, will make that much less expensive than the pre- 
sent mode of management. Of consequence, the extra produce ob- 
tained by a better system of cultivation, will cost the farmer little 
or nothing. There are few who are acquainted with the value of a 
grass lay, who will not agree with me, that if the corn crop be grown 
on a clover sod well stored with the roots of this plant, and a full 

• See Mem. Philad. \gr, Soc. vol, i. page 172. f Idem, vol. li. page 208. 

t That is too wet to sow wheat sown in the fall after ridging and water 
furrowing in the way that has been directed, and in that case, tlie land ought 
to be drained. 



524 

second crop of the grass is turned under, in the fall, and the maize 
be followed by wheat, that the product of each crop, saying the 
least which can be readily said of it, will be double the quantity 
that is obtained from the injudicious system of management de- 
scribed above.* I have never grown better crops of wheat than 
those which have followed maize. The practice of sowing wheat 
while the corn plant is yet standing on the ground, is not a good 
one. First, the ears and sometimes the plants are broken off. Se- 
condly, it is more laborious, as the seed lying near to the corn plants, 
cannot be well covered except by the hand hoe or rake. Thirdly, 
the seed cannot be sown as evenly over the soil. Fourthly, a part 
of it is arrested by the leaves, and being conducted by them near 
to, or in contact with the stalk, it lodges there until the fodder is 
gathered. Fifthly, the grounds cannot be laid so smoothly for mow- 
ing the grasses which follow the small grain. Sixthly, The wheat 
plants are mutilated and trodden into the ground, when the corn 
and fodder are gathered. These are not, however the evils com- 
monly enumerated by those who reprobate the practice of sowing 
wheat after maize. They tell us that the growing of the corn plant 
disqualifies the soil, in a way that they do not seem to understand, 
for growing the wheat; than which, nothing can be more erro- 
neous, if a sufficiency of nutriment has been provided for both 
crops. Plants, like animals, cannot prosper unless they have enough 
to eat. I never grew but one crop of wheat sown while the corn 
was standing on the ground. The crop of maize was luxuriant: 
therefore, in removing the grain and fodder, the wheat plants were 
much mutilated, and trodden into the soil. They looked so debili- 
tated through the latter part of the fall, winter, and early part of 
the spring, that but little grain was expected. The crop, however, 
turned out to be far better than was supposed, the quantity was not 
exactly ascertained, but estimated at about from twenty eight to 
thirty bushels to the acre. 

• It will be this in the beginning, and increase in due proportion to the in- 
creased fertility of the soil. 



CHAPTER LI. 

Tlie atmosphere is not, as too many have said, the vast ocean of food for plants. 
The food to be derived from it, and that from animal and vegetable matters 
considered. Remarks on the fallacy of the conclusions drawn from the ex- 
periment made by the willow ; also on the wounded locust. The circula- 
tion of the sap considered. 

oiNCE writing the foregoing essay on circumscribed farming, I 
have seen Colonel Taylor's Arator. The practical improvements 
made by this truly great agriculturist on an extensive and very eco- 
nomical scale, are calculated to astonish the enlightened and reflect- 
ing farmer. His system of management seems to be well adapted 
to the peculiar situation in which Virginia and some other States 
have been placed by the introduction of a multitude of slaves. 
By this very impolitic arrangement the labouring class of white 
and free citizens have been suppressed, discouraged, and nearly 
rooted out. Hence it is that extensive tracts of land owned by 
gentlemen are cultivated by their slaves. 

As self-preservation is the first law of nature, it would seem 
that Virginians will not readily admit the doctrine of liberating 
their slaves until an improved husbandry has made room for, and 
also eifected, a great increase of white inhabitants. If Colonel 
Taylor's highly improved system of management is, as it certainly 
ought to be, generally adopted, at least until a better one appears, 
by the extensive land and slave owners in Virginia, the time will 
quickly arrive when Virginians (who are certainly as just, humane, 
and hospitable, as are the citizens of the States where slavery has 
been abolished) may. with safety to themselves, their families and 
property, set their negroes free, if this be gradually and judiciously 
done.* Here I wish, however, to be well understood. The negro, 
with whose habits, talents and disposition I was intimately ac- 
quainted for more than forty years, is as worthy of freedom as any 
other man. His native talents, notwithstanding they have been 
oppressed by savage ignorance in his own country, and but too 
little ameliorated by a state of slavery here, are, if not fully equal 
to the talents of white men, but little inferior to them. When he 
is well fed, clothed, and humanely treated, but at the s;ime time 
well instructed to know that he ought to be obedient to all his 

* About forty years ago I liberated all the slaves I had, and have never 
owned one since. It cannot, therefore, be readily imagined, that I would 
wish to see slaveiy existing in any part of my native country, where the rights 
of man have been so highly and justly appreciated, long r than the oppressed 
may, with safety to tlie general community, be suffered to go free. 



526 

master's reasonable commands, and that the relation subsisting be- 
tween him and his master, requires that prompt and decisive 
means must be employed to enforce obedience should milder mea- 
sures fail, he is commonly at least as active, and quite as much 
attached to his master's interest as white servants in general are; 
and no man seems to be less offensive, more good humoured, and 
more cheerful than he is. 

Notwithstanding the very superior excellence of Colonel Tay- 
lor's practice, it would seem that some parts of it may be improved, 
and that some of his theories are not in unison with the economy 
of nature. 

In the fore part of his book he says, " If the vast ocean of at- 
mosphere is the treasure of vegetable food, manure is obviously 
inexhaustible. The experiment of the willow, planted a slip in 
a box containing two hundred pounds of earth, and at the end of 
a few years exhibiting a tree of two hundred pounds weight with- 
out diminishing the earth in which it grew, demonstrates the power 
of the vegetable world to select and elaborate the atmospherical 
manure. This two hundred pounds weight of willow was an 
amazing donation of manure by the atmosphere to the two hun- 
dred pounds weight of earth in which it grew. It was so much at- 
mosphere condensed by the vegetable process into a form capable 
of being reduced to vegetable food."* 

Naturalists formerly believed that the cameleon obtained its 
food from the atmosphere. It has, however, been discovered that 
it lives on more nutritious matters than can be found in air alone. 
The fallacy of the conclusions drawn from the experiment made 
by the willow is equally obvious. Plants being more tenacious of 
life than animals, some of them seem to live, at least for a consi- 
derable time, on the nutriment derived from the atmosphere alone. 
This source of nutriment, however, has been clearly proved to be 
insufficient to support, or perfect, any of the plants commonly em- 
ployed in agriculture. Still, when the nutriment floating in the 
atmosphere is used in conjunction with the principal, and more 
abundant food for plants, it becomes a highly important auxiliary; 
but could not, as Colonel Taylor seems to imagine, supply all the 
food necessary to the support and growth of the willow. If his 
theory be admitted, it follows of course, that plants will grow in 
a poor, worn out soil, as well as in one well stored with animal 
and vegetable matters. Experience, however, teaches us that the 
contrary is true. "The vast ocean of vegetable food" is only to 
be found in soils rendered rich, either by nature or art, from the 
application of animal and vegetable substances, which had, while 
living, stored up in their systems, by the active processes of life, 
rich decomposable animal and vegetable matters in sufficient quan- 
tities to become the support of animal and vegetable life in the 
succeeding generations of animals and plants. 

• See his book, page 51. 



527 

The willow, however, selected either by chance or design, by 
the experimenter, was well calculated to bewilder and mislead. 
It is a very thirsty plant. Hence it thrives best on the margin of 
water courses, or in a soil plentifully stored with moisture. If 
planted near to a well in which a pump has been placed, and the 
mouth of the well closed, the roots of this plant will sometimes 
find their way to the water in the oottom of the well in such great 
numbers as to fill it up from the top to the bottom. 

Such has been the organization of the willow, that by far the 
greater part of its weight is formed by the water so greedily drunk 
by it. The wood, therefore, while green, weighs heavy, but after 
the water has been evaporated, it is very light. Notwithstanding 
the earths, alkalies, and animal and vegetable matters contained 
in pure rain, or spring water, are inconsiderable, the two former 
have been found in those waters after they have been distilled. 
That water contains animal and vegetable matters even when ia 
its purest state seems to be evident, as it becomes putrid when 
placed in vessels which cannot communicate putridity to it. In- 
deed, we may sometimes readily discover by the taste that water 
has imbibed the properties of these substances by passing through 
or among them. 

The earth in the box must have been watered regularly, during 
the growth of the willow. Now if the addition of the nutritive, and 
other matters conveyed into the box, by the water, be considered, 
and also the nutriment which we may rationally believe, the plant 
was capable of gathering from the atmosphere, it is by no means 
wonderful, that the greatly reduced weight of the willow, after the 
water, which formed by far the greater part of its green weight, had 
been evaporated from it, was obtained by this inconsiderate expe- 
riment. 

The experiment on the locust, introduced by Colonel Taylor, to 
substantiate the same theory, is equally fallacious. He says, '♦ To 
illustrate the theory that vegetables extract their matter chiefly from 
the atmosphere, the following fact is circumstantially related. Some 
years ago, a locust tree at Colonel Larkin Smith's, received injury, 
which made it necessary to cut away entirely the bark around its 
body for eight or ten inches, so that its bark above and below, was 
wholly separated, without a cortical vein between. The wound 
was entirely covered with a close bandage of some other bark, 
which lapped beyond the edges of the wounded bark, above and 
below, and the tree was left to its fate. The plaster of bark never 
grew to the tree, but the edges of the wounded bark gradually ap- 
pioached each other under its shelter, and after several years met 
an<l united. By the time the wound was healed, the body of the 
tree above had become one-third larger than its body below it. And 
though several years have elapsed, the latter has not yet been able 
to overtake the former. The upper part of the tree, rooted in the 
air, vastly out grew the under, rooted in the earth. Therefore, it 
must have drawn either its whole or c/iie/" substance from the atmos- 



528 

phere.* Indeed, between the bark and wood of most trees, and of 
the locust particularly, we find the chief channel of their juices ; 
and the communication of these juices was utterly cut oft', so that 
neither portion of the tree could supply the other.f If the part of 
the tree fed from the roots, extracted from the earth the food which 
the earth had previously extracted from the atmosphere ; and if the 
earth was reimbursed gradually by the atmosphere, what is lost in 
feeding this part of the tree below the interdict to communication, 
as well as the great one above, it is considered as wholly obtained 
from the atmosphere, and might, on that supposition, be considered 
as a probable evidence in faVour of the theory that vegetables get 
from the air and give to the earth."| 

Here, it would seem that the Colonel believes that the locust tree 
** wholly obtained from the atmosphere" the nutriment consumed 
by it. Whether he also believes that plants, while living, have not 
only the power " to get from the air," but also " to give to the earth'' 
is not so clearly understood by me. 

The sap rises from the root up through the vessels in the nume- 
rous layers or annual growths in the alburnum or sap-wood of a 
tree : therefore, the injury done to the locust by exposing the sur- 
face layer, or layers of the sap-wood to the air, could not prevent 
the ascent of the sap through the vessels into the alburnum, which 
lay too deep to be affected by the same cause. It is evident that 
injury must have been done by the ready admission of air through 
the wide openings in the rough surface bark of the locust, as these 
could not have been closed by the plaster bark. 

In the back-woods it is the general practice to scalp off the bark, 
and often with the surface of the sap wood attached to it. This is 
done to mark, or as it generally is called, blaze the trees, on each 
side of the paths newly formed through our lonely forests, that the 
traveller may be directed in his course. We, therefore, have, by 
this and other operations in practice here, an opportunity of observ- 
ing how nature heals the wounds made in trees. I have examined 
this process in various states, and on many a tree. 

The new bark, like the new skin on wounds in animals, com- 
mences its growth round the edges of the whole wound, unless it 
has so happened that at any one part of the wound, the wood has 
been cut out deeper than in other parts of it. In this case, nature 
seems to find it much more difficult to spread, or even to cora- 

* Here, a mistaken theory, as too often happens, turns nature topsyturvy, 
or upside down. When we really see trees rooted in tlie air, as "the root is 
obviously the chief organ of nourishment," we may safely believe, as does 
colonel Taylor, that "vegetables extract their matter chiefly from the atmos- 
phere." — See Sir H. Davy's Lectures on Agr. Chem. page 56. 

fHere, this gentleman is certainly very much mistaken, as the girdling of 
timber in the back-woods, clearly demonstrates, that the great vascular sys- 
tem through which the principal part of the sap passes, is the vessels in the 
sap-wood, and in the bark of the tree. For an explanation of this, see my 
book on Vegetation and Manures, 
i See Arator, pag'es 77, 78. 



529 

mence spreading the new bark at those points ; especially if the 
deep cut has been formed across the grain of the wood, aad m heal- 
ing this p'ace, an unseemly scar is often formed; which I have 
been told is the principal cause of hollows formed in the bodies 
and limbs of trees. The air and water is let in by the openings in 
the imperfectly formed covering of bark, and gradually produces 
extensive fermentation and decay in the interior parts of th(^ tree. 
Indeed I have in some places observed where the opening has been 
small, that the bark has grown over the rotten wood in it, which had 
been previously decayed by water lodging in the wound. The rot- 
ten wood thus inclosed, no question greatly facilitates the destruc- 
tion of the interior parts of the tree. 

The new bark commences its growth so far under the old as to 
form where neither the vessel;-; in the old bark nor the texture of 
it has been injured, either by the action of the air, or any other 
thing. This often causes the new bark to commence forming so 
far under the old, that it cannot be seen unless the latter be strip- 
ped off. But here it is found firmly attached to the old bark, and 
each of them in unison, performing the functions of life. The new 
bark, in spreading itself over the wound, proceeds with its edges 
lapped or turned under similar to the edges of a piece of cloth lap- 
ped under to be felled. Those edges, so far as the eye can reach, 
do not adhere to the sap-wood underneath them. Beyond this 
point, as soon as the dried and dead surface of the alburnum has 
separated from the living wood underneath it, and the vacancy is 
filled up by a new growth of sap-wood, the new bark becomes firmly 
united to it, and the functions of life are performed by both of 
them. In this way the bark, in common cases, progresses until 
it meets and unites in or near the middle of the wound ; thus the 
processes by which nature heals a wound in a tree, seem to be very 
similar to those employed by her to effect the same purpose in the 
animal economy. Here again, the analogy between plants and ani- 
mals is seen. 

I have before observed that the sap rises upwards from the roots 
by the vessels in the alburnum. It, however, " probably descends by 
the cortical vessels in the bark."* In the case of the locust, the 
further descent of it was arrested when it reached to where the 
bark had been stripped otF. Here its journey downwards termina- 
ted, much in the same way as would have happened if nothing had 
obstructed the passage of it into the -roots. But being propelled 
onward by the powerful principle of life in the plant, as it ever is 
when the temperature favours the circulation of the fluids, at this 
point it entered into the pores of the sap-wood which had been 
newly formed. For it could not pass into the injured pores in the 
dried and dead alburnum lying immediately underneath. The sap 
having by this means obtained an ascending direction, there can be 

• See Sir H. Davy's Agr. Chem page 64. And principally by the cortical 
vessels in contact with the alburnum, hence it is that the liark is more readiJy 
stripped off when the sap flows freely. 

3 X 



530 

DO question but it continued to circulate upwards by the vessels in 
the alburnum, and downwards by the transporting vessels in the 
bark, until nature had prepared, and also applied, the various mat- 
ters contained in it, to all the purposes of life throughout the whole 
structure of the tree, above that part of it where the bark had been 
stripped off. Hence it happened, that the part of the body above 
the wound increased much faster in size than did the part of the 
body below it. It is also evident that Colonel Taylor's theory 
cannot be correct, for if it were, as he says, to wit, that " neither 
portion of the tree could supply the other," it must have dwindled, 
and sooner or later died, as does every tree that has been etFectually 
girdled. It is also obvious, that if this gentleman's theory were 
right, every girdled tree in the back -woods would possess the same 
power to form and increase its structure above the girdled part of 
it, just the same as if no attempt had been made to destroy it, at 
least until the water from rain, &c. lodging in where the girdle had 
been formed, produced a general decay at this point, and caused the 
tree to break off, and fall to the ground. 

To cast further light on this subject, I beg leave to make some 
observations on what Sir H. Davy has said of wounds in the bark of 
trees. He tells us, "When new bark is formed to supply the 
place of a ring that has been stripped off, it first makes its appear- 
ance upon the upper edge of the wound, and spreads slowly down- 
wards, and no new matter appears from below rising upwards. In 
the summer 1804 I examined some elms ;* the bark of many of them 
had been stripped oft' a foot square ; in most of the wounds the for- 
mation of the new cortical layers was from above ; but in two in- 
stances there had been very distinctly a formation of bark towards 
the lower edge. I was at first very much surprised at this appear- 
ance so contradictory to the general opinion, but, on passing the 
point of a knife along the surface of the alburnum, from below up- 
wards, I found that a part of the cortical layer, which was of the co- 
lour of the alburnum had remained communicating with the upper 
edge of the wound, and that the new bark had formed from this 

layer."t 

Facts are, however, very contrary to this in the back-woods. Here 
we see even when a part of the sap-wood has been removed with the 
bark, consequently every vestige of a cortical layer removed, that in 
common, the new bark grows out as readily from the lower edge, 
as from the upper edge of tlie wound, and in general it is sooner 
seen growing out from under the bark adjoining the sides of the 
%vound, than from that above or below it. The cause of this seems 
to be, that the old bark both below and nbove the wound is cut across 
the grain of it, therefore cracks open, and also separates more freely 
from the sap-wood by the action of the sun and air. By this means 

* lie says, however, that he did not examine them after tliis, if he had, his 
erroneous theory might not have been ! ublished. The process is slow, conse- 
quently cannot be understood but by due attention to the progress of it. 

t See liis Agr. Chem. page 243. 



531 

the economy of the tubes and vessels contained in it, is more ex- 
tensively injured. Hence it is, that when the tube^ are thus in- 
jured, the new bark commences growing further in, where they and 
the vessels in the old remain unhurt. How indeed could it be 
otherwise, when nothing can be more evident, than that the sap in 
trees, as well as in herbaceous plants, circulates through the diffe- 
rent parts of their system as freely as the blood circulates through 
the different parts of animal systems, and to eJRfect the same pur- 
poses. 

That a free circulation of sap exists between the sap-wood and 
bark of a tree, is evident from an experiment detailed by Sir Hum- 
phrey. He says, " It would appear from the late observations of 
M. Palisot de Beauvois, that the sap may be transferred to the 
bark, so as to exert its nutritive functions, independent of any ge- 
neral system of circulation. That gentleman separated different 
portions of bark from the rest of the bark in several trees, and 
found that in most instances, the separated bark grew in the same 
manner as the bark in its natural state. The experiment was tried 
with the most success on the lime tree, the maple, and the lilach; 
the layers of the bark were removed in August 1810, and in the 
spring of the next year, in the case of the maple, and lilach, small 
annual shoots were produced in the parts where the bark was 
insulated.''* 

So well persuaded does Sir H. seem to be of the validity of this 
fact, that he has given a plate in his book representing the trunk of 
the willow, with the insulated piece of bark, and the annual shoot 
growing out from it, witli the leaves upon it, and also the cavities 
formed by running the bark from every side of it, by which means 
it stood entirely detached from the cortical system of the tree. 
Still this gentleman says in another part of his book, " It is impos- 
sible to conceive a free lateral circulation between the absorbent 
vessels of the alburnum in the roots, and the transporting or carry- 
ing vessels in the bark ; for if such a communication existed, there 
is no reason why the sap should not rise through the bark as well as 
through the alburnum ; for the same physical powers would then 
operate on both."t 

Now it is evident from the experiment made by the insulated 
bark growing on the trunk of the willow, that in this part of a tree, 
there is a circulation of the fluids between the bark and alburnum. 
It would also appear, that this circulation must be in general consi- 
derable, or it would not have produced the effect (which has been 
described) in the small piece of insulated bark, wounded very se- 
verely on every side of it, and in that way which lay the wounds 
continually and openly exposed to the injurious influence of the 
sun and air. How much more pov/erfully then must be the lateral 
circulation of the sap between the bark and the alburnum, when em- 
ployed where the economy of the bark had not been thus cxten- 

• See his Book on Agr. Chem. page 59. | Idem, page 249. 



532 

sively injured. The experiments detailed in my book on Manures 
and Veg;etation have proved beyond the reach uf controversy, that 
the heart wood of a tree is alive, and that the growths in it, which 
had been made on the outside surface of the sap-wood, as the tree 
increased in size, were also, until the plant hja,d attained its full 
growth, annually increasing in size, and thi;^ too after they had 
been previously compressed into solid heart -wood, by the pressure 
of the increased number of the annual growths of the alburnum : 
consequently a free lateral circulation of the fluids must exist be- 
tween the pith, heart-wood, alburnum ani bark of a tree. 

We also find, that from the most interior parts, not only of her- 
baceous plants, but also of a tree more than five hundred years old, 
the juices which supply nutritious matters to the alburnum, may 
be extracted as pure and unaltered as they are found near the sur- 
face of the plant. This, also, seems to prove a free lateral circula- 
tion of the fluids from the surface to the centre of a plant. 

If the facts above related, with many more enumerated in my 
book on Manures and Vegetation, be duly appreciated, it would ap- 
pear that nature has formed in plants, as she has done in animals, 
an extensively diversified system of tubes and vessels, by which the 
sap is regularly circulated throughout the whole system of the plant, 
and that this mechanism has been so constructed and ordered, that 
no single one or more of those tubes and vessels intrude upon, or 
oppose the functions of any other one or more of them, and that 
though in some instances, they may seem to act separately, they at 
the same time act in perfect unison with each other. 

Sir Humphrey says, " In the leaves much of the water of the sap 
is evaporated ; it is combined with new principles, and fitted for its 
organizing functions, and probably passes, in its prepared state, 
from the extreme tubes of the alburnum into the ramifications of the 
cortical tubes, and descends through the bark. Now, here I would 
ask, why may not this circulation be as readily kept up, or perpe- 
tuated, by the sap after it has descended from the top of the tree in- 
to the roots, by the carrying vessels in the bark, by passing from the 
extreme tubes of those carrying vessels into the tubes of the albur- 
num in the roots, and from thence ascend through the pores in this 
wood,' to the extreme top of the tree. It does not appear that na- 
ture has placed any obstacle in the way of the perpetual circulation 
of the sap, while the temperature favours the process ; particularly 
as the organization of the radical fibres and tubes must be very si- 
milar to that of buds and leaves. For Sir Humphrey says, "By 
burying (he branches of certain trees in the soil and elevating the 
roots in the atmosphere, there is, as it were, an inversion of the 
-functions, the roots produce buds and leaves and the branches shoot 
out into radical fibres and tubes. This experiment was made by 
"Woodward on the willow, and has been repeated by a number of 
physiologists."* 

* See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 56. 



533 

Be the circulation of the fluids in a tree, however, carried on a* 
it may, it is highly probable that when thn economy of plants is bet- 
ter understood, it will be found very similar to that of the circula- 
tion of the blood in animals, as no other seems to be well calcu- 
lated eflectually to prepare and apply the matters contained in the 
sap. 

But, to return to Colonel Taylor's theories, from which it would 
appear, I have wandered further than I had intended. He says, "It 
is unnecessary to con?ider whether the animal and vegetable ma- 
nure i have treated of, ought to be ranked among the auxiliaries of 
the atmospherical, or the atmospherical degraded into an auxiliary 
of theirs. For my part, if I was driven to the alternative of re- 
jecting one, 1 should not hesitate to cling to the atmospherical, as 
the matrix of all ;* or rather to that portion of it within our reach 
by other channels than those of farm yard animals."! And again, 
" it is yet a question, whether the earth is enriched by any species 
of manure, except the vegetable or atmospherical, and experiments 
have hitherto leaned towards the negative."^ " The great object of 
making and applying the manure arising from litter of every kind, 
ana the dung of animals, is to avoid the loss by evaporation.''§ 

Those sentiments must surprise the plain, practical, observing 
farmer, whose opinions have not been perverted by erroneous theo- 
ries ; especially as the Colonel, four years after these opinions were 
propagated by him, and after he had effected an improvement, by 
his very extensive system of economical management, (which must, 
or at least ought, to astonish the farming world,) would seem to 
hold out the same ideas, very little altered or ameliorated by the 
highly interesting facts evidently unfolded, as the great improve- 
ments made by him rapidly progressed. 

He says, " The foregoing essays having been written several years 
past, subsequent experience has made some change in a few of the 
author's opinions. Those in relation to the essential article of ma- 
nure are stated in this note. 

" The extent of surface now manured upon the same farm, by a 
more careful employment of the same resources, has so far exceed- 
ed his expectations, as to have transferred his preference as means 
of improving the soil from enclosing to manuring, without, however, 
lessening the value of the former, in his opinion. A field of two 
hundred acres, aided by both, produced last year, a crop of Indian 
corn, averaging fifty bushels an acre ; and another of eighty, aid- 
ed only by enclosing and gypsum, a crop of twenty -five. The first 
being nearly double, and the second one-third beyond their respec- 

• Tf Colonel Taylor had reflected before he advanced this very inconside- 
rate tlieory, he would have seen that the atmosphere is indebted to the gase- 
ous effluvia constantly emitted from dead and living animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, for all the nutritive matters found in it , consequently the food for 
plants does not originate in the atmosphere. 

t See Arator, page 75. ± Idem, page 52. § Idem, page 62. 



534 

tive products when last in culture. Under a diminution of the 
stocks quoted, the surface manured last year, exceeded one hun- 
dred acres, and will this year extend to one hundred and thirty. 
It is contemplated to extend it, until it reaches annually a space 
sufficient for the whole corn crop of the farm. The regular in- 
crease of crops furnishes additional vegetable matter; the chief 
basis of this rapid improvement."* 

No question but the Colonel will, if he should live and prosper, 
extend his manuring as far as, or even much farther than, he con- 
templated. He will certainly find, however, that this invaluable 
object cannot be effected, without a proportionable increase of the 
live stock kept on the farm. Though he now considers " the vege- 
table matter the chief basis of this rapid improvement," his enter- 
prising mind will sooner or later, but as I believe very soon, dis- 
cover that dried straw, in which practice, as well as chemistry, de- 
termines there is but little nutritive matter for cattle, and of con- 
sequence as little food for plants, united with cornstalks, dried as 
his are, by standing by far too long exposed singly in the field, can 
afford but little nutritive matters for plants. In the space between 
the two first joints of the cornstalk, much saccharine matter is 
stored up in the pith. The Colonel's mules and horses may obtain 
considerable nutriment by dexterously opening the stalks at 
these points, and taking out and eating the pith. When the stalks 
have been well saved by gathering them early, and setting them up 
in well formed heaps, calculated to run off" the water from rains, 
&c. especially if they had been gathered by the too tedious prac- 
tice of pulling them up by the roots, much of the saccharine mat- 
ter is preserved in the pith. I very well remember, that after a 
quantity of cornstalks which had been gathered by pulling them up 
by the roots, were carried into the cattle yard, of being much amus- 
ed by observing about thirty horses, which had been taken in to win- 
ter, abandon their hay, and each one of them, as if previously 
taught by long practice, dexterously employed in extracting and 
eating the pith contained in the space between the two first joints 
of the stalk. The husk, which envelopes the ear, is, when the fod- 
der of the corn plant has been well saved, very nutritious food for 
cattle ; but by the usual tedious and very expensive practice of 
gathering and securing fodder the husk is left hanging on the stalk 
in the field, where, by exposure, far the greater part of the nutri- 
tive matters contained in it are scattered in the air. However, so 
much still remains in the thick leaves by which it is formed, that 
hungry cattle will eat, and may be kept alive on it. 

The Colonel should, however, have recollected, that after the 
pith had been extracted by his mules and horses, and the husk eaten 
by his cattle, the meagre remains of the cornstalks could have af- 
forded but little nutriment for plants ; and that the chief use of 
them must have been, to imbibe, and carry out in them to the field, 

* See note, page 207. 



535 

the rich juices found in the cattle yard. This mode of using them 
never fails to increase their value manifold. 

It was, therefore, to the animal matters imbibed by the stalks, 
and dry straw with which his cattle were littered, together with 
the small quantity of dung dropped by them, while feeding in the 
yards, to which the Colonel was indebted for the greater part by far 
of the increased improvement made by him, where his long manure 
was spread ; notwithstanding he says, in the note now under consi- 
deration, " We shall never succeed to a great extent, if we consi- 
der animal manure ^n any other light than a kind of sugar to 
sweeten the copious repasts of vegetable, with which we ought to 
feed the earth.* It may also mingle with vegetable matter, dispose 
the mass at particular periods of its putrescency to <?xtract salts 
from the atmosphere ; but however useful it may be, the epithet 
animal is only to be admitted connected with a recollection of its 
origin. This is vegetable matter, of which animal manure is only 
a remnant, having undergone one or two secretions, and the dimi- 
nution arising from animal perspiration. Vegetable matter, there- 
fore, is the visible origin of manure ; if atmosphere is its source, 
that can only be reduced to a visible substance by vegetable instru- 
mentality."! 

There is certainly a considerable part of this quotation which I 
cannot understand, so as to be able to make any useful remarks on 
it. It would seem, however, by that part of it which I can com- 
prehend, as if the Colonel, after he had ploughed under his long 
manure, was, by his theory, naturally led, in idea, up into the at- 
mosphere in search of substances, which the animal matters, in 
conjunction with the dried vegetable substances, might extract 
from thence. For it would appear, from this and other parts of his 
book, that he considers animal manure of little consequence as 
food for plants. He, however, thinks that, in conjunction with ve- 
getable substances, it might extract salts from the atmosphere. It 
cannot be questioned that the long manure, if it had been favour- 
ably situated, was well calculated to gather nitrous impregnations 
from the atmosphere; still it would seem, that the depth at which 
it was covered under the soil was by no means calculated to fa- 
vour the project. If those salts, however, had been plentifully 
gathered by it, they contain no nutriment for plants: consequently 

* But here I would ask whether it be possible to believe, that after this 
gentleman's cattle had stripped off the diied husk, and his mules and horses 
removed and consumed the pitli, as has been explained, the meagre remain- 
der of the cornstalks can furnish " a copious repast for plants," when animals, 
who live on the same food as plants do, would actually soon starve to death on 
such provision, even if the griping pains of extreme hunger should induce 
them to eat it. As plants live on the same food as animals we have a sure cri- 
terion, by whicli we may readily determine the value of such substances as 
are eaten by cattle, when they are used either green or dry for manure. For 
in due proportion as these substances, when used as manure, are found more 
or less nutritive, when consumed by cattle, in like proportion will they be 
found more or less nutritive for plants, 
f See same note. 



5«6 

could act in no other way than by the introduction of more mois- 
ture, and stimulating fertility, by the hasty and unnatural decom- 
position of the nutritive matters contained in the Sod and manure. 
But as it seems most probable that those salts were not gathered, 
at least to any material extent, it would appear most likely that 
little or no good was derived from them, at least in the way that 
this gentleman has pointed out. 

It would seem, however, that notwithstanding the Colonel's the- 
ories are evidently very erroneous, they did no injury whatever, so 
far as his long manure was concerned. The plants derived just the 
same nutriment from it, as they would have done if his theories had 
been perfectly correct. 

But it was otherwise in his practice of turning a clover lay for 
corn, as this was not done until the vegetation, except the roots, 
which yet remained green and well stored with vegetable matter, 
was still more effectually stripped of the rich nutritive matters, 
which they abundantly contained while green, than was either the 
straw or cornstalks, previously to their being applied as litter for 
the cattle. This will, however, be more particularly explained 
after I have made further observation on what this gentleman says 
of animal manures. 

He tells us in the same note, now under consideration, when 
speaking of vegetable manure, " Its vast superiority over every 
other species of manure, designates it as the basis of agriculture. 
Applied in green bushes, it is much more beneficial in curing galled 
declivities, than animal manure. I use it with great advantage for 
that purpose, and also for manuring level land." * 

Animal manure would soon be washed out from galled declivities, 
or gullies, as this gentleman elsewhere calls them ; therefore, in 
such places, green bushes may be much more profitably employ- 
ed. They naturally arrest at least a part of the soil washed into 
them, and with it, the enriching matters contained in the part ar- 
I'ested. By this means the gullies are eventually filled, and common- 
ly with a deep soil well stored with nutriment. Colonel Taylor is 
certainly justly entitled to great praise for his prompt attention to 
gullies, which are but too generally neglected, and much land ruin- 
ed by them, and also for the economical practice he has adopted of 
making the gullies productive, while time, aided by his very ingeni- 
ous contrivances, is filling them up ; likewise for doing this by em- 
ploying nothing but green bushes anu small brushwood, as manure 
for the crops, substances which are but too generally burned, or other- 
wise destroyed, so as to answer but little, if any, valuable purpose, 
by too many cultivators. Still, no person whose judgment has not 
been greatly blinded by erroneous theories, could readily believe, 
that green bushes, or even green clover, or any other vegetable ma- 
nure known to, or used by us, is any thing like as nutritive as ani- 
mal matters are when used as food for plants. Neither are there 
any vegetable matters by which the soil can be so soon, or as highly 
enriched, as by animal substances. 

Animal matters, when applied for the growth of plants, are the 



537 

most powerful of all manures, without making any I'eference to the 
salts which Colonel Taylor seems to think are gathered from the 
atmosphere by these matters, in conjunction with vegetable sub- 
stances, or indeed without referring to any other property which 
they either really have, or may be supposed to possess, but simply 
that of the food for plants actually existing in them. 

This gentleman might have clearly seen this from the vast dis- 
proportion, in point of produce, between the crop of corn grown on 
the clover lay, and that on the grounds which had been manured by 
litter, slightly intermixed with the dung made by his cattle, and also 
saturated with the rich juices gathered in the cattle yard. The 
quantity was doubled in the latter case, and if the manure applied 
had been as highly enriched, as it would have been if cattle, in due 
proportion to the litter employed, had been fed and constantly kept 
in the yard during the season for feeding dry fodder, the crop would 
have yielded three or four times as much corn to the acre, as that 
grown on the clover lay without dung. The richest lands that are 
to be found will yield much more Indian corn, or a far greater crop 
of any other plant known to me, which is not readily injured by 
much nutriment, if a rich coat of stable manure be spread over the 
soil, and ploughed in for the crop. The cause of this is as evident 
as that of any other fact, and seems to have been well known prac- 
tically to Colonel Taylor. He says in his observations on the im- 
poverished state of the lands in Virginia, and when, it would ap- 
pear, his theories did not blind his better judgment, that " to con- 
ceal from ourselves a disagreeable truth, we must resort to the de- 
lusion, that tobacco requires new or fresh land ; whereas every one 
acquainted with the plant, knows that its quantity and quality, as is 
the case with most, or all other plants', are both greatly improved by 
manured land, the fertility of which has been artificially improved."* 
Thus it frequently happens, that we may see the wisdom that go- 
verns a man's practice, if it be good, when his theories are imme- 
diately opposed to reason and practical observation. 

The reason why lands, recently cleared from their wood, are not 
so productive as grounds which have been judiciously managed by 
man, is obvious. Notwithstanding nature employs means, by which 
a vast body of animal matter is generated, and is also careful to 
spread this matter over the surface of the soil, so that it may be in- 
timately blended with the vegetable matters contained in it ; the 
quantity of animal matter so gathered and spread by her, falls very 
far short of that which may be gathered and spread where man pre- 
sides, if he acts judiciously. The number of large animals that 
may, in this case, be profitably fed by that part of the vegetation 
grown on the grounds which he can readily spare, afford a large 
quantity of dung. Hence it is, that when man wisely co-operates 
with nature, the soil is much more highly improved by this increase 
of animal matter; and there animal lite may be propagated and sup- 
ported to the utmost possible extent. 

* Sec Arator, page 8. 
3 Y 



CHAPTER Lll. 

Remarks on Colonel Taylor's practice. To him belongs the honour of forming 
a system of management, calculated to pi-omote the agriculture, prosperity, 
and wealth of Virginia. 

JViY observations on Colonel Taylor's theories, will, I trust, be 
generally useful. Those, however, made in this chapter, on his 
practice, will be more important to the circumscribed farmer, and 
it is him that I more especially have laboured to instruct, by refer- 
ring to the opinions and practice of this truly great practical agri- 
culturist. 

The Colonel observes, that " deep ploughing upon a naked and 
poor soil, by which a caput mortuum is brought to the surface, has 
frequently proved pernicious. This has been owing to a variety of 
causes, but among them, the prcFei vation of a flat surface, though 
least suspected, has probably been the most operative. The simple 
process of burying under a steril tegument, the little strength of 
the land, neither promises nor performs much ; but the disappoint- 
ment of hopes really forlorn, frequently causes us to abandon effort, 
and embrace despair. By the system of these essays, enclosing,* 
manuring, and high narrow ridges, are combined with deep plough- 
ing. The two first replenish the earth with a large stock of vege- 
table matter, and the last has the effect of collecting the existing 
soil in the centre of the ridge, and depositing the steril on the two 
sides, there to remain for above three years, exposed to the action 
of the atmosphere. Thus all the effects of deep ploughing are 
avoided. Instead of a naked surface, it is applied to one largely 
replenished with vegetable mutter. Instead of forcing the soil and 
substratum into a topsyturvy position, it collects and doubles the 
first for a present crop, and provides for the amelioration of the 
other, for a future one. It deepens and fructifies the soil, whilst it 
makes the best provision for present profit. For the reader will ob- 
serve that I am speaking of poor lands, whose soil requires doubling 
for present subsistence, and improving for future comfort ; and not 
of those soils which cannot be pierced by the plough. By deep 
ploughing, I always mean the best to be performed by four horses 
in a plough. "t 

I tlo not understand, by what Colonel Taylor has written, how 
his grounds are ploughed, so that " instead of forcing the soil and 

* This is the term which Col. Taylor employs when vegetable substances arr 
ploughed under. 
tSee Arator, page 110. 



539 

substratum into a topsyturvy position, it collects the first for a 
present crop, and provides for the amelioration of the other for a 
luture one." 

It is, however, to be readily understood that when farm yard ma- 
nure is applied for his corn crop, the dried weatherbeaten tops of 
the clover are turned under in the winter, and as I understand 
him, eight inches deep,* by four good horses in a plough ; that af- 
ter the farm yard manure has been spread in the spring, the ground 
is again ploughed by four horses hitched to a plough. It would seem 
that this last ploughing is well calculated to admit the " thief eva- 
poration," and also expose a surface well calculated to encourage 
the growth of grass and weeds. 

From what this gentleman has written on ploughing in the dried 
vegetation, when farm yard manure is not used, 1 cannot under- 
stand whether the grounds are or are not ploughed twice, previous- 
ly to planting the corn. The " thief evaporation," is, however, 
again let in to do very extensive mischief, notwithstanding the Co- 
lonel is so very anxious to exclude him from his system of manage- 
ment.! So great indeed is the injury done in this case, that nothing 
like the same amount of nutritive matter could possibly exist in 
the tops of the clover, as exists in the same weight of dry straw. 
This, we all know, alFords but little nutriment for cattle; of conse- 
quence but little food for plants. To illustrate this, it requires more 
ground to furnish as much hay as will fully feed an ox six months, 
than it would to yield as much grass, to be cut with a scythe, as 
would feed him plentifully for the same time. Hay can be seldom 
so well saved, as to fatten an ox. Grass, however, when cut and fed 
green, will certainly fatten him, unless his previous habits have been 
such, as to prejudice him much against eating it freely when given 
to him in this way. It, therefore, appears that the "thief evapora- 
tion" steals much of the nutriment contained in grass, in making 
it into hay; especially if the weather and the skill of the farmer 
do not favour the process. If, however, the grass happens to be 
much exposed to rain, especially at a time very unfavourable to the 
process, " the thief evaporation" steals so much of the nutritive mat- 
ter contained in it, that it is often no better, and sometimes inferior 
to straw. As clover, however, is much earlier and more severely 
injured by frost than are the speargrasses, if a part of the nutri- 
tive matters washed out of it by rain was not secured by sinking 
into the soil, " the thief evaporation" would steal nearly the whole 
of the nutriment which was originally contained in the grass, pre- 
viously to its being ploughed under in the winter ; consequently, 

♦ This gentleman's essays were first published in a newspaper, &c. conse- 
quently he was compelled to be brief. Ths seems to be the cause why, even in 
plain practical cases, he is not readily understood. 

f Every cultivator should be quite as anxious as is the Colonel to exclude this 
thief. In doing this, however, he should be careful that by the means employ- 
ed to exclude one robber, two or three still more destructive thieves arc not let 



540 

notwithstanding the body of vegetable matter had been greatly in- 
creased, by remaining on the grounds throughout the spring, summer 
and a part of the fall, '• the thief evaporation" had stolen so much 
of the nutriment which had existed in it while green, that there is 
no man who admits that animal and vegetable matters alone, fur- 
nish food for plants and animals, who (if not misled by erroneous 
theories,) would not believe that if the Colonel had either judicious- 
ly pastured the first crop of the last year's clover, or made it into 
hay, that a full grown second crop of this grass turned under the 
soil in the fail, while it was green and well stored with nutritive 
matters, would have furnished vastly more food for plants, than did 
the whole dried, weatherbeaten substances employed by him. 

By applying the second crop of clover for manure, he might have 
augmented his live stock from the food obtained by the proper use 
of the first, and in this way increased the means of more rapid im- 
provement, with but little perceptible expense. Provided the ad- 
ditional live stock were gradually reared on the farm. 

The Colonel seems to think that dried vegetation may be more 
usefully employed as manure than green. He says, " By ploughing 
in the vegetable succulent, we stop the process for extracting, ela- 
borating, and condensing atmospherical manure, and chiefly bury 
water, liable to the laws of evaporation, demonstrated in the case 
of rain, the richest, but most shortlived of every species of ma- 
nure. On the contrary, by suiFering the vegetable to acquire its 
most solid form, it will extract more manure from the atmosphere, 
and this manure will be retained vastly longer by the earth."* 

This gentleman should have informed us how "we stop the pro- 
cess for extracting, elaborating and condensing atmospherical ma- 
nure, by ploughing in the vegetable succulent late in the fall ;" also, 
how happens it that, "by suiFering the vegetable to acquire its most 
solid form, it will extract more manure from the atmosphere, and 
this manure will be retained vastly longer by the earth." 

1 do not know whether the Colonel here means, as in the case of 
his long manure, that the vegetable extracts more manure from the 
atmosphere, after it is dead and buried under the soil, or whether he 
believes it is extracted while it is living, and applied in it after it is 
dead. In either case, however, it is as evident as any other thing 
can well be, that what he says cannot happen. 

He should likewise have explained how " rain water" can ♦* be 
the richest but most shortlived of every species of manure ;" es- 
pecially, as chemists tell us, that very little nutritious matter is to 
be found in it. 

The true state of the case is simply this, green vegetables soon 
ferment after they are ploughed under the soil. The water con- 
tained in them is, therefore, quickly evaporated. The nutriment 
furnished by them, however, is not more subject to evaporate than 
is that from any other enriching manure. The quantity of woody 

* See Arator, pages 57, 58. 



541 

fibre in the fully grown green vegetable, is equal to that in the dry. 
But it ferments more freely than dried vegetable woody fibre; par- 
ticularly if the latter has not been excited to an early fermentation 
by being well saturated with rich matters from the cattle yard or 
elsewhere. It is, however, the particular property of green as well 
as dry woody fibre, to keep the soil much moister in a dry time, 
whether it be clay or sand. The processes by which this is done 
are iughly interesting, and have before been fully explained. 

I have before clearly shown why a thin soil should not be deep 
ploughed, and that it is more highly improved, and its products 
greatly increased, by a contrary practice.* Likewise, why but one 
ploughing is far better than more for a crop of maize, or any other 
fallow crop, and why the ground should not be ploughed for the 
small grain following any fallow crop. Colonel Taylor's grounds 
seem to have been formerly very poor ; but as it is to be expected, 
that his superior talents had ameliorated them as far as a bad sys- 
tem of husbandry would admit this to be done, previously to the 
commencement of his present highly improved system of farming, 
it is believed that ploughing to six inches deep might be safely 
practised on such grounds. It is also thought, that this would have 
been far more profitable in his practice than eight inches, which 
seems to be the depth employed by him ; particularly as his long ma- 
nure appears to have had but a scanty proportion of dung incorpo- 
rated with it.f As one ploughing would have been far better than 
two for his corn crop, and it seems probable that he also ploughed 
at least once for the wheat following it, he might, (with great im- 
provement to his crops and his soil,) have saved a very great deal 
of labour; especially as two horses in the place of four hitched to 
each plough would have been sufficient to execute the work. 

The Colonel is certainly much mistaken in attributing to ridges, 
as formed by him, a peculiar power to secure moisture. They are 
as much opposed to this as any one thing can well be to another, 
being exactly calculated to produce artificial droughts. A capital 
blunder, which has been before explained, induced me to plant my 
corn on ridges; and, as the error was not soon enough discovered, 
the practice was by far too long continued by me. My grounds were 
manured by fresh long manure, principally composed of cornstalks 
and other dried vegetable substances; but, from the product of the 
crops, it would appear, that these dried substances had more dung 
mixed with them than was employed in his practice. It would 
also seem, that my ridges were not as high as his, for my plough- 
ing was but six inches deep. As the causes, however, which pro- 
duced the injurious effects arising from ridges in my practice have 

♦ Practical observation seems to have determined, that the poorest soil 
that will pay the farmer for cultivating it, should not be ploughed less than four 
inches deep, taking care, however, in the execution of this work, to be under 
in preference to being over thisdepth. 

f When but little enriching matter is employed in a thin soil, and the 
ploughing is deep, the fermentation is seldom as powerful as it ought to be. 



542 

been carefully explained before, it would be useless to enumerate 
them again. 

This gentleman forms his furrows for planting along the mid- 
dle of the ridge by making a deep and wide furrow with a trowel, 
hoe-plough, and two mould boards. This wide and deep furrow 
seems to be useful in his practice. By planting the seed so far 
below the top of the ridge, the finger roots, which have been 
formed to dip deep, will grow further into the ground. I'lie 
plants, therefore, will be better secured from the effects of drought 
by this mode of management. This open furrow will also better 
preserve the moisture arising from the rain falling into it than 
would the round of a ridge, until it is filled up by cultivation. 
In case, however, of planting on a level surface, or on a ridge 
formed in a retentive soil as it ought to be, (to wit, with no more 
rotundity than is absolutely necessary to run off into the water 
furrows, any excess of moisture which might prove injurious to the 
plants,) a deep and wide furrow for planting would be very inju- 
rious, except in a new soil, which never seems to be so retentive 
of moisture as to require ridging, but where so much dried and 
partly decayed hard vegetable substances prevail as to render it 
necessary to make the furrow deep enough to plant the seed on 
the more solid earth or soil, and to cover it by the same material 
as has been before described. The cause of the injury generally 
done by planting in a very deep furrow, is, that filling up the fur- 
row in the course of cultivation compels the plants to form a new 
set of lateral roots at the expense of those already formed. This 
diverts the efforts of nature from the improvement of the top of the 
plant. The injury done to the economy of plants by this and the 
several other truly savage practices in too general use, have been 
before explained. 

Colonel Taylor, in page 101, says, when describing his mode of 
cultivation, "A deep furrow is run on each side of the corn by 
a large plough, drawn by two horses, with a mould board, causing 
the earth thrown out of it to meet at the corn, though the furrow 
is a foot from it." In page 106, he informs us, " that this fur- 
row is formed in June;" and says, "by this time the corn is from 
eight to twenty-four inches high. At this juncture, the deep fur- 
vow on each side of it being run, narrows the ridge for about eight 
days, until it is again widened by the middle furrow; and that 
space will suffice to give the corn roots the longitudinal direction 
which shields them against all injury. This furrow being bestowed 
on it whilst it is young, and its roots short, and being run near 
a foot from it, the roots of the corn, from this mode of culture, 
wholly escape injury, and the effect of drought being thus dimi- 
nished, its product is increased." 

If the corn plant be pulled up from an open, free soil when it is 
not more than three inches high, the lateral root will be found 
about twelve inches long, beside the smaller fibres left in the 
ground by this rude operation. If Colonel Taylor had examined 



548 

the lateral roots of his corn when the plant was only twenty-four 
inches high, or even before it had attained this height, he would 
have found that they had extended as far as this very deep furrow 
bounding each side of the ridge, would permit them to run. This 
being the case, the lateral roots were all cut off, by forming the 
deep furrow within one foot of his plants, except such roots as had 
taken their natural course lengthwise the ridges. Of consequence 
the crop was much injured by this inconsiderate operation. 

This gentleman seems to believe he had given the roots of the 
corn plant a longitudinal direction by the wide furrow which he 
made about one foot from each side of his plants. But here I 
would ask, could he, or any other person, rationally expect any 
possible advantage by diverting nature from her usual course, and 
by this means confining the roots into a narrower compass .'' Does 
not reason as well as practical observation, dictate, that the more 
extensive the pasture provided for the roots of plants, and the less 
they are diverted from their natural course, the more luxuriant and 
productive they will be .'' 

The lateral roots of plants, however, are not to be diverted from 
the course nature has taught them to take, by forming a deep fur- 
row near to the plant, unless the bottom of the furrow so formed^ 
be frequently disturbed, or cut up, by some instrument calculated 
to cut off the new roots, (which will form from the stubs from which 
the former set of roots were separated,) as effectually as did Co- 
lonel Taylor, by forming the deep furrows, cut off the roots from 
his plants. 

The lateral roots of maize not only cross such wide and deep 
furrows unobserved by the cultivator, unless he traces their track 
under the cover of the ground, but, after they have crossed them, 
proceed up into that part of the soil where nature had appointed 
them to grow: self-preservation seems to compel them to do this, 
as they cannot live if buried too deep under the surface. 

Having pointed out, as 1 believe, the errors in Colonel Taylor's 
theories, and how his practice may be improved, I will now make 
some remarks on the very superior excellence and economy of the 
latter. The most important part of it is, the discovery he has 
made, and proved by actual practice beyond the reach of contro- 
versy, that grounds which had not been more reduced than his 
were by a bad system of husbandry previously to the commence- 
ment of his new practice, may, with the aid of no other manure 
but gypsum, and the clover growing on them, be so managed as to 
yield a crop of corn, followed by a crop of wheat, if on this last 
crop clover seed be sown, to be continued but two years, and the 
grass of the first year be suffered to rot on the ground, and that of 
the second year be turned under, even when dry, for the corn which 
will commence the ensuing round of crops. By this very cheap 
and simple practice, he has discovered that the product of the 
grain and grass crops, as well as the fertility of the soil, have been 
regularly increased every round of crops, or in the course of every 



544 

iour years. Many have grown, and ploughed in clover, and some 
have suffered it to rot on the soil ; but, it seems, that it is only to 
Colonel Taylor that the honour is justly due, of discovering and 
reducing into regular practice, the highly important system of ma- 
nagement briefly described above. 

The free white populationof Virginia is so inconsiderable in pro- 
portion to the cleared land, that the owners of the grounds could 
not get tenants with sufficient capital to cultivate the soil, so as to 
promise any improvement, were the larger farms to be divided into 
small ones. This seems to compel the owners of the land to culti- 
vate it themselves, or to subject it to still greater injury than has yet 
been inflicted on it. The labour, however, was so much increased 
by making the farm offices the centre of motion when the farm was 
very large, that but little profit was to be expected, especially from 
poor grounds, unless this evil could be at least in part removed. 

This, it would appear, could not escape Colonel Taylor's extensive 
talents, notwithstanding all that Arthur Young, and other visionary 
theorists had published to the contrary. He says, " the annual 
farm pen for cattle is indispensable,* as being a vast saving on Eu- 
ropean custom of stationary cow-houses. A. Young is, I think, of 
opinion, that twelve hundred acres is the*size of a farm best adapted 
for the economy of labour. Suppose two hundred and fifty acres 
of this farm to be annually ploughed and fifty manured. If the ma- 
nuring is commenced around a station for raising manure, in four 
years this station is insulated in the midst of two hundred acres of 
manured land, leaving it about six hundred yards distant from the 
nearest of the unmanured land, which distance increases as the ma- 
nuring is extended from that minimum to its maximum, namely, the 
distance from the centre to the verge of an area of one thousand 
two hundred acres. Hence the expense of carrying in the litter, and 
carrying out the manure, will presently become so enormous, as to 
drive the farmer into the ancient ruinous and abandoned custom of 
infield and outfield, or that of highly improving a spot, around his 
house, and greatly impoverishing the rest of his farm."t 

The evils enumerated by Colonel Taylor would have been effected 
ere this in Britain, had the support of Mr. Young's economical 
system, as he very inconsiderately calls it, depended solely on the 
capital and management of the mammoth farmers in England. The 
long continuance of the late war, however, raised and kept the 
price of the products of the soil so very high, that while it continued, 
the enormous extra expense arising from this, and various other 
causes equally destructive to the simple, but wise economy of agri- 
culture, was not felt by the mammoth farmers. And parliament 
since the war ceased, propped the tottering, visionary project, by 
large bounties, or what is in effect the same thing, by prohibiting the 

• It actually is so, if great profit is to be rationally expected from Colonel 
Taylor's invaluable system of manag-ement. 
t See Arator, page 68. 



545 

importation of the products of the soil, until after the price of theivi 
had risen above that at which the British farmer could grow them, 
without ruin to himself. 

The complicated, expensive, and ruinous system of management, 
practised in Britain, may for a time astonish and mislead those who 
are captivated by show and parade, but must sooner or later fall, 
or the manufactories of that country will languish and dwindle, or 
her artisans be compelled to emigrate to countries, where bread, and 
the other necessaries of life may be had at about half the price 
which generally obtains in England. 

But to come still nearer to the point ; if extensive farms have 
been beneficial to Great Britain, how happens it, that Sir John Sin- 
clair tells us, that "For above seventy years at the commencement 
of the last century, we fed ourselves, though the price of grain was 
so low, as greatly to promote population, a sufficient practical refu- 
tation of the several visionary doctrines which have been promul- 
gated on that subject."* Also that *' throughout the greater part of 
England, until about the commencement of the American war, rents 
were low. The landlord and the tenant jogged orf together, the one 
satisfied with an inferior rent, and the other with his share of a 
moderate produce."! Likewise, that " Mr. Middleton gives the es- 
timate of the value of corn in Middlesex, about the year 1796, be- 
fore the late great increase in the price of grain." He in this esti- 
mate "rates wheat at an average for many years at five shillings 
and six pence,| (or one dollar twenty-two cents) per bushel." 

Here I would ask, whether it would not have been far better, if 
the landlord and tenant, or small farmer as he is now called, had 
continued to jog on together in the good old way ? the one using the 
superior means possessed by him of obtaining information, in in- 
structing the other in the genuine principles of rural economy. If 
in doing this, the landlord had form.ed a small portion of his grounds, 
without ostentation or parade, raising annually the best crops the 
soil was capable of producing, and with tb«^ least possible expense, 
the agriculture of England would, ere this, have become nearly, or 
perhaps equal to that of Flanders and Brabant. Sir John says, 
when speaking of the small farms lying near to the large towns in 
Scotland, hence it is, that in Flanders, which is full of large towns 
and villages, the farms are small."§ 

Now how happened it that Flanders is filled with large towns and 
villages ? and now is this population supported, if Sir John be cor- 
rect in saying, in another part of his book, "- It is only by the means 
of large farms, that great towns or populous districts can be sup- 
plied in sufficient quantities, with grain and butcher's meat ?"|| This 
gentleman also again says, " It is, however, known by experience, 
that it is impossible that any country can be improved where small 
farms prevail. "IT ^ 

• See his book on the Systems of Husbandry in Scotland, vol. ii. page 96. 
t Idem, pages 84, 85. + Idem, page 383. § Idem, p. 133. 

II Idem, p. 151. i[ Idem, p. 162. 



546 

It is evident, however, he might have known that the reverse of 
this very inconsiderate theory is true, if his superior judgment had 
not been led astray by the favourite system of the age. 

In proof of this, I will copy some parts of a letter written to 
Sir John by Mr. Gillet, directeur des affaires publiques a Brux- 
elles, dated the 2nh December, 1801. To wit. 

" The important services you have rendered to the agriculture 
of England, will, I hope, sufficiently apologise for the liberty I take 
in addressing you on this subject, without having the honour of being 
known to you. 

" I have examined, with attention, the situation of agriculture in 
most countries in Europe, and do not hesitate to affirm, that it is 
no where so well understood and practised as in the Low Countries. 
I do not except my native country, England, though 1 am ready to 
admit that she is as much advanced in this important science be- 
yond France as the Low Countries are beyond England. 

" This will not surprise you, Sir, when you consider that while the 
fortunes of England and France were divided between agriculture, 
industry, coloniAtion and external commerce, those of the Low 
Countries, were principally employed in the advancement of agri- 
culture alone, by establishing small farms. 

" This system has succeeded admirably well in Flanders and Bra- 
bant, where land is every where in the highest state of cultivation) 
and offers a wonderful contrast with the situation in the Liege 
country, county of Namur, and in the province of Hainault, which 
confines (bounds) Flanders and Brabant. There the system of large 
farms, is still in common practice, and very little progress has been 
made within fifty years. The vast disproportion in the product of 
those different provinces, when compared with that of Flanders and 
Brabant, offers a very strong argument against the system of large 
farms ; and I urge this point with more confidence, as it is the re- 
sult of experience and attentive observation, and because I learn, 
with regret, that this mode is very predominant in most parts of 
England. 

" The influence which you have acquired in your country, by your 
knowledge in this science, and the warm interest I take in every 
thing that can contribute to the prosperity of my native country, 
engages me to request you to fix your attention on the Low Coun- 
tries, where you will find many methods new and economical, that 
may be beneficially employed in England. 

" It is an error into which many have fallen, for want of observa- 
tion and a knowledge of the interior of the country, to believe that 
the soil of the Low Countries was originally good. It is the almost 
incredible industry of the peasantry in Flanders and a part of Bra- 
bant which has rendered the soil so productive. The Pays de Waes 
a prodigy of art, was forty years ago a bruyere, a heath or waste* 
It is now perhaps the richest province in the world.*" 

• See Sir John's book on Systems of Husb. in Scotland, vol. ii. Appendix, 
pagesl89, 190, 191. 



547 

Now it would appear tliat this " prodigy of art" has been achiev- 
ed by the superior talents and indefatigable industry of peasants, 
whom A. Young calls " the most ignorant set of men in the world." 
He should have considered, however, before he made this irrational 
assertion, that nature is not partial to any grade of society in the 
distribution of talents. Of consequence, that men brought up from 
their infancy in any branch of business, are far more likely to be- 
come well acquainted with it than men whose attention has been 
engrossed by other pursuits. 

Here I beg leave to observe, that if a gentleman has reclaimed a 
Small portion of waste land, even if it has been at an expense which 
has exceeded the value of the grounds after the improvement has 
been made, we seldom fail to hear much of it. 

It would appear, however, that so little has been said or known 
in England, of the extensive and invaluable improvement made by 
the peasantry of Flanders and Brabant, that even Sir John seems 
to think, but not until after he had received Mr. Gillet's letter, 
" inquiry should be made into the state of the agriculture of those 
countries." 

Now if this had been done before the system of extensive farming 
establishments was adopted in England, a very great deal of mo- 
ney which has been inconsiderately sunk, might have been saved ; 
for it is evident, that the peasantry of Flanders and Brabant, could 
not have paid rent for the soil and supported themselves and their 
families, while these improvements were progressing in any other 
way than by the products of the soil ; consequently this " prodigy 
of art" has been effected without any perceptible expense; while 
the improvements made in Britain, on a comparatively small and 
imperfect scale, have cost immense sums of money. The con- 
trast between the present state of agriculture in Great Britain and 
that of Flanders and Brabant, is very great, as is the difference in 
the expense by which the improvements have been made. The 
proper inference to be drawn from these facts, is highly important 
to the interest of agriculture in this country ; especially as too 
many have urged us to copy the most absurd and expensive errors 
that have been practised in England. In fact, it would appear that 
it matters not how absurd the practice may be, if it has been adopted 
in that country, though, if we had not been deceived by the glare of 
great crops, &c. we might have seen that the agriculture of Great 
Britain is far less profitable than that of any other nation known 
to us under the sun. The cause of this is evident. The profits to 
be derived by the agriculturist in other countries, depend solely on 
his own exertion and economy ; consequently if his income be small, 
his mode of conducting his business, although it may be a bad one, 
must be such as will secure him a sufficient clear profit to cover the 
expense of his family. In England, however, the case is widely 
different. The farmers in that country have been bolstered up by 
government J therefore the strict rules of rural economy are by far 
too often, not only neglected, but also despised by them. The im- 



548 

mensc injury which has been done, however, to the soil in Virginia, 
and the improvement that has been effected by those who have judi- 
ciously cultivated small farms in Pennsylvania, ought to point out 
the course which should be pur|Med by us, when existing circum- 
stances will admit us to walk in it. 

Sir John Sinclair as clearly points out, as does Colonel Taylor, the 
great increased expense introduced by very extensive farming estab- 
lishments, but at the same time fixes on a size by far too large to 
he profitably cultivated by any one single farmer. He says, " on 
the ivhole about three hundred Scotch, or three hundred and eighty- 
one English acres, is, in general, sufficient; and it has been remark- 
ed, that those who grasp at having farms of a great extent, oftener 
lose than gain by extending their concerns. Such a farm as three 
hundred acres may be laid off, so as not to extend beyond a reasona- 
ble distance from the farm house and offices. Where a greater 
quantity of ground is combined into one farm, the fields must be 
extended, and the expense of labour increased, from the distance be- 
tween the farm offices and the ulterior divisions, by means of which 
a greater establishment will be required to hnng home the produce, 
and to take out the manure / much time will also be unprofitabty 
consumed in going to and returning from the fields, and in rainy 
weather the grounds will be greatly cut up by these operations ; 
much additional labour will therefore be required from the necessity 
of taking lighter loads.'** 

It would seem that a very enterprising farmer might manage half 
this quantity of cleared ground advantageously. In common, how- 
ever, one or two hundred statute acres would be better cultivated 
with less expense, in proportion to size, than a larger farm. Now, 
if Sir John be right as to the great increased expense necessarily 
following the increased size of farms, Arthur Young's very exten- 
fvive establishment of fourteen hundred, must be very far wrong. 
But strange to tell, Sir John, whose better judgment seems to have 
been so captivated by the seemingly prosperous state of the agri- 
culture of Britain, when his book was written, that he allows even 
much larger farms may be profitably cultivated, than Mr. Young 
considers the best and most " economical size." 

To Colonel Taylor, Virginia is indebted for saving a considera- 
ble part of the great increased labour, introduced by a system of 
management similar to Arthur Young's supposed " economical" 
theory, which he boasts, seemingly for the purpose of obtaining all 
the credit due to it, was formed on " untrodden ground." It will 
be found, however, that his followers will have to retrace their -gi- 
gantic steps. Likewise, that it will cost Britain an immense sum 
of money to repair, or make anew, the numerous buildings erected 
when the farms and farmers were smaller, and which his mistaken 
and inconsiderate theory, (formed by far too hastily, especially as he 
acknowledges it was fabricated on untrodden ground,) had devoted 

^ See kis book on Sys. of Scotch Husbandry, vol. ii. pages 135, 136. 



549 

to decay. The money that Avill be sunk by Britain, first and last, 
in this wild, visionary project, would be more than enough to reclaim 
all the waste lands in the country; especially if men, equal in in- 
dustry and economy to the peasantry of Flanders and Brabant, 
were employed, and made to be interested in the work. 

Virginia may boast, that^itt no part of Colonel Taylor's practice 
does any thing like ostentation or show appear. On the basis of 
genuine rural economy, he has laid the sure foundation of her rising 
suddenly from her ruins into prosperity and wealth. 

Intent only on reducing the ruinous extra expense introduced by 
large farms, in the cheapest way that it could well be done, his 
sheds for sheltering his live stock through the winter are formed 
in the field next to be cultivated, by the simplest and least expen- 
sive means that can be devised. The skeleton, or temporary frames 
of his sheds, are made with fence rails, &c. without any labour spent 
in regularly framing them. The top, sides, &c. are enclosed by a 
thatch formed with corn tops, put on with incredible despatch ; es- 
pecially by Virginia negroes, who have been accustomed to build 
what are called fodder houses, on an extensive scale, by nearly the 
same simple and easy means by which the Colonel forms his sheds. 
These fodder houses are as tight and warm as any other houses can 
well be. The outside surface of the tops by which the sheds are 
covered, is the only part of the fodder exposed to the weather ; 
consequently they are nearly as nutritive food for cattle, when the 
sheds are taken down in the spring, as they were before they were 
employed for thatches, provided they are well put on. 

This gentleman considers the turnip an exhausting crop, afford- 
ing but little nutriment. He, however, grows some of them, which 
perhaps every farmer ought to do, when his grounds cannot be got 
ready in time for a less exhausting and more nutritious fallow crop. 
He, however, estimates the pompion much more highly. In this 
I believe he is correct, as it would seem that any given space of 
ground occupied by this plant will yield more and better nutri- 
ment for live stock generally, than would do the same extent of 
soil employed in growing any of the roots, or other green crops 
cultivated by us for the same purpose.* Colonel Taylor, however, 
seems to consider it best not to grow more of any green crops than 
can be advantageously fed to his milch cows, while his beeves and 
hogs are fattening on them. By this judicious arrangement he has 
not to encounter the laborious task of frequently culling his pom- 

• The seed costs nothing. The crop is g'athered with much less labour 
than any of the green crops cultivated by us. The cultivation is also less 
laborious, for if they be planted near enough together a very close shade is 
soon formed. It should be recollected, however, that manuring only in the 
hill is a bad practice ; especially if the soil be thin. This plant puts out roots 
at every joint in the vine which is in contact with the ground : therefore to 
obtain very extensive crops, tliose roots must be well fed. It will, however, 
yield a moderate crop, if planted on any grass lay which is well stored with the 
tops and roots of the grasses, without the application of farm yard irarure. 



550 

pious in order to feed those first which are sinking into decaj. 
He also obtains more nutriment from his turnips by feeding them 
early. As he stacks up and covers his green crops with corn tops 
on the grounds where they are to be fed, much labour is saved m 
feeding those bulky articles. 

He pens up his cattle at night through the summer, &c. on the 
grounds next to be cultivated ; and this part of his economy is so 
managed that many acres are manured with the least possible loss. 

He manages his hogs better than I have ever known it done, 
and so that little or no mischief is done by them. By feeding 
them well, and killing them much youiger than is commonly done, 
his pork is good, and costs him far less than it generally does. 

He drains extensive swamps, and bj this means converts a sur- 
face very injurious to health into fertile meadows and fields. 

He also gives much attention to live fences, a practice too much 
neglected, but of high moment in our older settlements, where 
timber is scarce. 

I have before observed, that even the brushwood growing in the 
thickets, arising from bad cultivation and unpardonable neglect, 
is, by a very simple and cheap mode of management, reduced by 
him into valuable manure. While the gullies introduced by stu- 
pidity and neglect (in which this manure is employed by him) are 
filling up with the mould washed into them, and arrested by the 
brushwood, valuable crops are growing on them. Thus the double 
purpose of converting a disgrace to our country into fertile soil, 
and obtaining valuable crops, is accomplished. Nothing that is 
capable of being used as manure seems to escape the notice of this 
great economist; and almost every thing done by him seems to 
be accomplished with the least possible labour and expense. 
Neither labour, nor expense, however, appear to be grudged by 
him, when either will answer a valuable purpose. Of consequence 
he seems to act on a very extensive scale, in unison with the sim- 
ple but wise economy of farming. Such gentlemen, I believe, are 
rare, therefore, when met with, should be the more highly prized. 

I will conclude by observing, that as the tops of the clover, era- 
ployed by Colonel Taylor, were stripped of the greater part of the 
nutritive matters contained in them, previously to their being 
ploughed under the soil in the winter, it was to the rich matters 
stored up in the roots of the plant, and to the action of gypsum, 
that this gentleman was principally indebted, for the rapid improve- 
ment made by him. As clover and gypsum, however, had been 
employed by many, without producing the same permanent and 
astonishing eflFect, as had clearly appeared in his practice, he seems 
to have been led to inquire whether other powerful auxiliaries had 
not acted in conjunction with them. As nothing but very high 
ridges, and ploughing in the tops of the clover, after they were 
dry, except persevering in a regular system of management, ap- 
peared ditFerent in his management from the general mode of em- 
ploying clover as manure, he seems to have lost sight of the effects 



551 

produced by perseverance alone, and introduces theories opposed 
to the economy of nature, and the enlightened reason of man, to 
prove that very high ridges, and ploughing in the tops of the clo- 
ver, after they had been stripped of far the greater part of the food 
for plants, were powerful agents in his system of management ; than 
which nothing can be more erroneous, as both were highly injurious 
to it. In this, however, the Colonel is by no means singular, as 
too many, among whom I may justly include myself, have consi- 
dered the most injurious part of their management, the most im- 
portant. This being the case, it certainly behoves the cultivator 
carefully to examine what is, and what is not, in unison with na- 
ture and reason, before any practice is adopted by him. By this 
plain and simple rule, the best practices may be amended, and bad 
ones entirely rejected by him. 

It should, however, never be forgotten, that to Colonel Taylor 
solely belongs the honour of demonstrating, by actual practice, that 
poor grounds may be rapidly enriched, without the aid of farm yard 
manure, and at the same time so ordered, (by an economical sys- 
tem of management, which seems also to have originated princi- 
pally in his practice,) that, in doing this, the crops and neat clear 
profit derived from them, will be so much increased beyond what 
they had previously been, as to favour the opinion, if the causes 
which produce these astonishing effects were not known, that the 
magic wand of fertility, had been waved by some supernatural 
power over the soil. 



TITE END. 



INDEX. 



ACIDS, of the formation of, in 
the vegetable kingdom, page 3. 

Agriculture, general remarks on 
the improvement of, 359. 

A. Young's system 

noticed, 443, 459. 

Albany pea, notice of, 513. 

Alkalies, theory of, considered, 
12. 

American wheat drill, notice of, 
362~how used, 363. 

Anderson^s (Dr.) practice of 
ploughing, considered, 153 — 
his mode of planting potatoes 
noticed, 471. 

Animalcula, 25 — those that infest 
fruit trees noticed, 377. 

Animals, domesticated, some re- 
marks on the diseases to which 
they are subject, 455. 

Ashes of certain soils, Sir H. Da- 
vy's analysis of, 80. 

of stone coal, and peat, va- 
lue of, as manure, considered, 
117 — on the use of those of 
wood in the new settlements, 
340. 

Atmosphere^ the influence of, on 
vegetation exemplified, 123, 
526. 



B. 

BAJYKS, (Sir J.) his opinion of 
the cause of mildew in wheat 
examined, 29. 

Banking and ditching, on the 
practice of, 370. 

4 



Bark, tanner's, highly valuable 
as manure, 119. 

Barley, on the cultivation of, as a 
spring crop, 145 — time of sow- 
ing, and quantity of seed re- 
quired to the acre, 285 — more 
proJRtably raised on rich soils 
than oats for feeding cattle,286. 

Barns,on the construction of, 353. 

Barracks, how constructed, 354 
— on the preservation of hay 
and grain in, 355; 

Barytes, sulphate of, a valuable 
manure, 15. 

Beans, their cultivation on grass 
lays noticed, 179 — method of 
planting with maize, 262 — ob- 
servations on the value of a 
crop of, 264 — the straw good 
for foddej'ing cattle, 493. 

Beets, grass lays recommended 
for the growth of, 179 — injuri- 
ous effects of stripping them 
for fodder noticed, 246. 

Blood, &c. recommended to be 
added to the manure recepta- 
cle, 114. 

Bones, when ground, a good ma- 
nure, 113. 

Bordley's method of ploughing 
noticed, 153 — his remarks on 
sowing wheat considered, 274 
— observations on his plan of 
fattening hogs on potatoes, 430, 
et seg. 

Brine, a valuable manure, 113. 

British convertible husbandry, 
observations on, 481. 

Burning of soils, on the practice 

A 



554 



INDEX. 



of, 80, et seq — its destructive- 
ness exhibited, 83 — how prac- 
tised in the back-woods,page 86, 
335. 
Buckwheat, on the cultivation of, 
156, 184 — economy of, 514. 



C. 

CAJV^DIJJV CORJW descrip- 
tion of, 204. 
Carbonate of limey action of, 1. 
Carrots, grass lays proper for the 
growth of, 179 — remarks on the 
cultivation of, 428. 
Cartivrighfs (Rev. E.) experi- 
ment on the cultivation of the 
potato, 236. 
Cats, the keeping of, recommend- 
ed, 373. 
Cattle, remarks on the grazing of, 
291 — on the salivation pro- 
duced by certain grasses, 292 
— remarks on the feeding of, 
in yards, &c. 308 — liable to be 
hoven from eating red clover, 
309 — how cured, id. — on the 
giving of salt to, 313 — the prac- 
tice of feeding on straw consi- 
dered, 314, 455 — observations 
on winter fattening of, 324 — 
on their management in yards 
and sheds, 325, 356 — on the 
feeding of potatoes to, 433 — 
Arthur Young's observations 
on the food proper for, 452 — 
effects of feeding on straw 
through the winter, 454 — dis- 
eases to which they are liable, 
456 — on the purchase and rear- 
ing of, 472. 
Cattle sheds, on the construction 

of, 325, 357. 
Cattle-yards^ observations on the 
proper construction of, 105, 
316. 
Chalk, its use as a manure, 4. 
Charcoal, its fertilizing powers 
considered, 88. 



Clamshells, a valuable manure, 

when broken, 114. 
Clay, ferruginous, abounding in 

New Jersey, 14. 
Clearing new grounds, the prac- 
tice of the Pennsylvaniafarmers 
stated, 331 — method adopted 
by the New England farmers, 
335 — the two methods com- 
pared, 340 — plan of cultiva- 
tion to be pursued, 341. 
Climate, on the alterations of, 
220 — effects of, on the peach 
tree, considered, 390. 
Close planting, error of, exposed, 

162. 
Clover, red, benefit of gypsum to 
the growth of, 20 — its cultiva,* 
tion recommended for the de- 
struction of weeds, 145 — its 
profitable employment in a re- 
gular course of cropping, 187 
— on the management of, 289 — 
observations on the curing of, 
299 — its effects on cattle no- 
ticed, id. 319. 
Clover lays, their value when ap- 
plied for wheat and maize 
stated, 132— recommended for 
fallow crops, 170 — and for tur- 
nips, beets, and other tap- 
rooted plants, 179. 
Comports, on the use of gypsum 
in forming, 16 — on the use of 
lime, mould and weeds in, 100, 
et seq. — the kind proper for the 
growth of maize, 254. 
Convertible husbandry, the bene- 
fits arising fioni, considered, 
168, 321 — its merits explained 
and illustrated, 322, et seq.— 
how practised in England, 481 
— in Scotland, 482. 
Corals, Sfc. their use as manure, 

114. 
Corti — see Maize. 
Corn cribs, construction of, 367. 
Coulter^s observations on the ma- 
nagement of peach orchard? 
noticed, 380. 



555 



Crops, fallow, on the cultivation 
of, 129, 137, 187, 511—inju- 
rious effects of, 130 — of maize 
with a view to the destruction 
of weeds, 141 — invariably to 
be sown on grass lays, pagel70. 

— — spring, preferred for the 
destruction of weeds, 145. 

— remarks on the best course 

of, 191 — the author's practice 
stated, 193 — on the causes of 
the failure of, 218 — a compa- 
rative statement of, illustrat- 
ing the merits of convertible 
husbandry, 321 — course of, for 
new soils, 343 — remarks on the 
different systems of managing, 
439 — the various courses of, in 
Scotland, 496. 

of maize, 141» 161, 217, 



250, 432, 446 — of potatoes, 
140, 162, 180, 233, 430— of 
peas, 143, 179, 187 — of hemp, 
£69— of wheat, 143, 187, 193, 
239, 275, 446, 451— of flax, 
267— of barley, 145, 163, 285, 
446, 451 — of grasses, general- 
ly, 289, et seq. — of buckwheat, 
156. 184, 187— of rye, 283— 
of turnips, 179, 242 — of beets, 
179 — of carrots, 179 — of beans, 
179, 451, 493— of clover, 188 
— of ruta baga, or Swedish tur- 
nip, 244. 

mixed, potatoes and maize. 



162, 238 — maize and beans, 
261 — remarks on the manage 
ment of, 439. 
Cultivation, general remarks on, 
129 — of stubble grounds, id. — 
of naked fallow grounds, 130 — 
of grass lays, 132 — of mixed 
crops, 162 — of old grass 
grounds, 166, 173 — the level 
method recommended in the 
cultivation of small grain, 175 
— plan adopted for a large crop 
of maize, 250 — course for a 
wheat crop, 273, et seq. — for 
rye, 283, et seq. — barley, 285 — 



oats, 286 — the system of Ar- 
thur Young noticed, 443, et 
seq. — the practice of Colonel 
Taylor stated, 538. 

Cultivation of new grounds, prac- 
tice of the Pennsylvania farm- 
ers noticed, 333 — of the New 
England farmers, 335 — the two 
modes contrasted, 341. 

Currier^s shavings valuable as 
manure, 114. 



D. 

Dd VY, (Sir Hmnphrey,) his re- 
marks on the different substan- 
ces possessing fertilizing pow- 
ers, 2, et seq. — his experiments 
with gypsum, 15 — his experi- 
ments to ascertain the food of 
plants, 31 — remarks on the in- 
fluence of gravitation on the 
growth of plants, 34 — on the 
sap of plants, 41, 530 — on the 
wood of trees, 61 — on the pa- 
ring and burning of soils, 80 — 
analysis of the ashes of several 
soils, id. — on the fertilizing 
properties of charcoal, 88 — on 
the application of farm yard 
manure, 110 — on the nutritive 
matter contained in the potato 
and other roots, 429. 

Darwin's (Dr.) observations on 
lime, 3, 5— on the living part 
of trees, 61. 

Decomposition of plants, on the 
process of, 25, 118, 124. 

Deep ploughing, remarks on, 470. 

Diseases to which cattle are sub- 
ject, notice of, 455, et seq. 

Dogs, on the practice of keeping 
them on farms, 317. 

Draining wet soils, how practised 
by the author, 194. 

Drill (American wheat) notice of, 
362 — method of using it, 363. 

Drilling, method of, for raising a 
crop of turnips, 243 — remarks 
on the practice of, 359. 



556 



INDEX. 



DuckeWs skim coulter plough, 

notice of, page 174. 
Dung, see Manure, 
Dunging, general observations 

on, 109. 

E. 

ECOJyOMF of maize, remarks 
on, 201, et seg. — of the potato, 
2S0— of timothy grass, 290— of 
buckwheat, 514. 

F. 

FALLOW GROVJVDS, naked, 
on the cultivation of, 129 — in- 
jurious effects of, 130, 135 — 
how prepared for planting, 173, 
et seq. 

Fall ploughing for a crop of maize 
considered, 134. 

Farming estabPishments, remarks 
on those formed by gentlemen 
in the United States, 403, etseq. 
Those ofEngland noticed, 459. 

Farm yard manure, observations 
on, 99 — decomposition of, 100 
—on the mixing of rich mould 
with, id. — the mixing of the 
weeds, &c. recommended, 101 
—author's method of prepar- 
ing, 102 — remarks on the pre- 
vailing practices with respect 
to gathering, &c. 105 — how 
best collected and preserved, 
106, 107. 

.Feathers, damaged, their value as 
a manure noticed, 113. 

Fences, those made of logs no- 
ticed, 415. 

Fermentation and decomposition 
of plants, on the process of, 25, 
118, 124,178. 

Fish, very successfully used as a 
manure, 113. 

Fish-brine, also employed on land, 
113. ^ 

Fodder, remarks on the value of 
corn blades and stalks as, 221 
—on the carrot, beet and pars- 



nip, 246 — method of cutting 
and preserving the stalks and 
leaves of maize for, 258 — on 
the potato, 433 — the bean plant 
493. 

Food of plants, observations on 
the, 31,151. 

Forests, remarks on the natural 
growth of, 24, 71 — the accu- 
mulation of manure in, 25 — 
burning of, 72. 

Frost, its effects on the growth of 
Indian corn, 212. 

Fruit trees, on the growth and 
management of, 375 — of the 
peach tree, 380 — application of 
lime to, 383. 

Fungus on Indian corn, how best 
removed, 218. 

Furrier^s clippings, valuable ma- 
nure, 114. 



G 

GJRDEJV GROUJV^DS, re- 
marks on, 190. 

Garlic, how destroyed, 143. 

Gases, their influence on vegeta- 
tion considered, 90. 

Gauge for dropping coi.i, beans, 
&c. described, 366. 

Gentleman farming, observations 
on, 403— its expensive nature 
considered, 405-r-a more econo- 
mical plan than that now in use 
recommended, 41 1 — on the pro- 
per course of cultivation to be 
employed in, 427, et seq. — on 
the employment of workmen 
in, 435 — on the purchase of 
land for the purpose of, 449 — 
cburse of crops recommended 
for, id. — remarks on the super- 
intendence and management 
requisite for, 457. 

Girdling of trees, observations 
on, 63, 330. 

Grain, on the preservation of, in 
barracks, 355. 

Grasses, observations on, 389 — 



INDEX. 



557 



red clover, id. — timothy, id. — 
lucerne, 292 — oat grass, 294 — 
orchard grass, 295, 299— green 
grass, page 297. 

Grass gi'ounds, old, consideration 
of the value of, 164 — on the 
management of, 166. 

Grass lays, on the cultivation of, 
152 — fallow crops should be 
grown on, 170 — on the produc- 
tive nature of, 172 — proper for 
the growth of beans and peas, 
179, 264 — and for turnips, 
beets, and other taprooted 
plants, id. — for potatoes, 234 — 
for flax, 267. 

Chrass seeds, remarks on the pre- 
servation of, 165 — the advan> 
tage of sowing them separately 
pointed out, 167, 294. 

Grape vines, remarks on the mu- 
tilation of, 248. 

Gravitation, its imputed influ- 
ence on the growth of plants 
considered, 35. 

Grazing, remarks on, 291, 297. 

Green crops, the growth of, for 
manure, recommended, 147, 
184. 

Green grass, on the growth of, 
297. 

Grubber, or cultivator, on the use 
of the, 482. 

Gypsum, its fertilizing powers, 1 
— its existence in several 
plants, 13 — analysis of, 14 — 
Sir H. Davy's and Judge Pe- 
ters's experiments with, 15, 16 
— its beneficial effects on red 
clover grounds, 20 — its value 
when employed to coat seeds 
previous to their being sown, 
124 — for flaxseed, 267 — its ac- 
tion on certain soils noticed, 
522. 

H. 

HAIR, scalded from hogs, or 
taken from skins by tanners, 
useful as manure, 113, 114. 



Hales^s, (Dr.) curious experi- 
ments on the sap of trees, 42, 
48. 

Hand hoeing, some remarks on, 
241. 

Harrow, (hoe) its construction 
and use, 365. 

Harvesting grain, on the proper 
mode o^ 287. 

Hay, observations on the making 
of, 289, et seq. 299— when bad- 
ly cured can be made palata- 
ble to cattle by salting, 313 — 
on the preservation of, in bar- 
racks, 354 — Arthur Young's 
remarks on the product of, 452 
— very nutritious food for cat- 
tle through the winter, 454. 

Hay savers, how constructed, 
357. 

Hedges, observations on, 370. 

Heliogoland bean, notice of, 493. 

Herdgrass, on the cultivation of, 
171. 

Hemp, remarks on the cultivation 
of, ^9. 

Hessian fly, notice of, 273 — how 
any material injury to the 
wheat crop from this insect 
may be avoided, 274. 

Hilling, injurious effects of, no- 
ticed, 176. 

Hill ploughing, on the practic« 
of, 200. 

Hoe harrow, on the construction 
and use of, 364. 

Hogs, on the soiling of, 316--on 
the fattening of, with potatoes, 
430. 

Hollow horn, on the disease of 
cattle so termed, 455. 

Horn shavings and turnings, re- 
commended as a valuable ma- 
nure, 113. 

Horses, on the management of, 
356. 

Husbandry, convertible, observa- 
tions on the profitable nature 
of, 168— its practice in Eng- 



558 



INDKX. 



land and Scotland considered, 
page 480, et seq. 
Hyacinth, or star of Jerusalem; 
remarks on, 137 — how eradi- 
cated, 138. 

I. 

1^%SEC^S, the kinds which in- 
fest fruit trees noticed, 388 — 
how destroyed, 391. 



JUICES of plants. Sir H. Da- 
vy's theory considered, 41 — 
Dr. Hales's curious experi- 
ments on, 42,48 — influence of 
the weather on, 45. 

K. 

KWJVEYBEJIJS*, on the econo- 
my of, 123. 

L. 

UlJVnS, new, letter to Dr. 
Mease on the choice of,|,347. 

Leaves, sleep of, remarks on, 53 
— valuable as manure, 116. 

Level cultivation, its practice re- 
commended for the small grain 
that follows a fallow crop, 174 
— for grass lays, 1 80. 

Lime, its action in a caustic state, 
1 — observations of Dr. Dar- 
win on its formation, 5, et seq. 
— its inji;rious eftects when 
mixed with farm yard manure, 
100 — may be beneficially ap- 
plied on thin soils for a corn 
crop, 25S — how prepared and 
applied for that purpose, 254 — 
its application to fruit trees 
noticed, 383. 

Limestone, powdered, action of, 1 
— its effects on gra^s grounds, 
4. 

Linseed cake, an excellent ma- 
nure, 1 19. 

Live stock, remarks on the pur- 
chase and rearing of, 472. 



Living principle of trees, obser« 
vations on, 68. 

Log fences, on the construction 
of, 415. 

Lucerne, remarks on the cultiva- 
tion of, 292. 

M. 

MJIZE, effects of the weather on 
the growth of, 56 — fall plough- 
ing for a crop of, considered, 
134 — its cultivation with a 
view to the destruction of 
weeds recommended, 141 — re- 
marks on the topping of, 159 
— on its cultivation as a mixed 
•crop with potatoes, 162 — Mr. 
Stevens's wager crop of, 161-— 
on the ridging of, 163 — its cul- 
tivation on grass lays, 180 — its 
exhausting properties compar- 
ed with those of turnips and> 
potatoes considered, 201— on 
the different kinds of, used for 
field planting, 203 — successful 
experiments made to blend the 
desirable properties of the 
whole in one, 205 — on its pre- 
servation, 207 — on the proper 
season for planting, 209 — ef- 
fects of frost on the growth of, 
213 — management of the stand- 
ing crop, 217 — remarks on the 
failure of, 218 — on the fungus 
and rust by which it is affected, 
219 — on the cultivation of, for 
fodder, 246 — for soiling, 247 — 
the proper cultivation of it de- 
scribed, 250, et si'q. — the pro- 
per time for cutting the stalks, 
&c. considered, 256 — method 
of stacking and husking, 257, 8 
—on pulling off the ears in the 
field, 263 — on the cultivation 
of beans with, 261 — method of 
raising corn on new soils, 243 
— construction of cribs for the 
preservation of, 367 — its fat- 



INDEX. 



559 



tening properties when fed to 
cattle and bogs noticed, 433 — 
instructions tor growing it on 
grass grounds without the use 
of dung, page 511. 

Malt dust, noticed as a manure, 
119. 

Manure, its natural accumulation 
in our forests, 24 — from decay- 1 
ed vegetation, 25, 95 — animal! 
matter, 25 — on the accumu- 
lation of, in farm yards, 99. j 
323 — author's method of pre-j 
paring, 102 — observations on | 
the prevailing practices of gath- 
ering, preparing and using the 
manure of a large farm, 105 — 
general observations on the 
collection and preservation of, 
105, 107 — Chinese manner of 
preserving night soil, 115 — on 
the application of fresh ma- 
nure, 149 — on the collection 
of, by soiling tiie stock, 323. 

Manures, the difterent kinds con- 
sidered, 1 — value of gypsum, 
14 — of a ferruginous clay found 
in New Jersey, id. — sulphate 
of iron or green vitriol, 15 — 
sulphate of barytes, id. — pyri- 
tes, id — of weeds as a manure, 
27, 1 16— of bones, horn shav- 
ings, damaged wool, fish, and 
feathers as manures, 1 IS — hair, 
leather, &c. valuable, 114 — 
night soil, 115 — pigeon dung 
and that of farm yard poultry, 
generally, 115 — street dirt, 
116 — straw and weeds, id. — 
stone-coal and its ashes, 117 — 
peat, id — tanner's bark, 1 19 — 
rape-cake, linseed cake and 
malt dust, 120 — turnips, 142 — 
kinds proper for maize, 254. 

Maple sugar, how made in the 
bacK-woods, 393 — suggestions 
on the formation of a camp or 
orchard for the making of, 395. 

Market, observations on the send- 
ing of produce to, 424. 



Marly on the action of, 1 — its 
value as a manure, 4. 

May wfed, how destroyed, 147. 

Merino aheep, remarks on the va- 
lue of, 418. 

Mice, llie best mode of destroy- 
ing them noticed, 272. 

Mildew in wheat, on the cause 
of. 29. 1 50. 

Mixed crops, observations on the 
cultivation of, 161, 238, 261. 

Mosses, on the growth of, on 
rocks, 28 — on trees, 29 — on 
the roofs of buildings, id. 

Mowing, observations on, 300. 

N. ' 

J^^EWLA^N'DS, on the choice of, 

347. 
JVight soil, its fertilizing pro- 
perties noticed, 1 15 — Chinese 
mode of preparing for manure, 
id, 

O. 

O^TSi on the cultivation of, 286. 

Oaf grass, remarks on the value 
of, 294. 

Old grass grounds, evils arising 
from, considered, 164. 

Orchard grass, notice of, 295,299. 
376. 

Orchards^ on the management of, 
375 — grasses proper for, 576 — 
culture of the peach tree in, 
380 — application of lime to, 
381. 

Oxen, on the management of, 
327 — more profitable to the 
farmer than horses, 328. 

OystershMs valuable as a ma- 
nure, 7. 

P. 

PJiRIMG and burning soils, on 
the practice of, 80, at seq. — 
analysis of the asher of, id. — 
bad efi'ects arising from the 
practice, 83, 337. 



560 



INDEX. 



Parsnips, on the uses of, 246 — 
the poisonous properties of, at 
certain seasons, page 249. 

Peach orchards, on the manage- 
ment of, 380 — the soil proper 
for, 381 — application of lime 
to, 383 — on the insects by 
which they are injured, 388 — 
and the best mode of effecting 
their destruction, 391 — eiFects 
of the change of temperature 
on, 390. 

Peas, their cultivation on grass 
lays recommended, 179. 

Peat salt, its fertilizing efFects,15. 

ashes, valuable as manure, 

117. 

Peters, (Judge) his remarks on 
the effects of gypsum in the 
decomposition of dung heaps, 
16 — his management of fal- 
low crops of maize considered, 
134 — on the star hyacinth, 137 
— his method of eradicating it, 
139 — mode of destroy iig gar- 
lic, 143 — remarks on his prac- 
tice in the growing of wheat, 
143 — his plan of destroying 
the May weed or daisy, 147 — 
his objections to the use- of 
fresh manure considered, 148 
— remarks on the change of 
climate, 226. 

Phosphorus, its existence in vege- 
table matter, 5. 

Pigeon dung, a very powerful 
manure, 115. 

Pith of trees, remarks on the, 69. 

Planting, the error of close plant- 
ing considered, 162. 

Plants, the imputed influence of 
gravitation on the growth Of, 
considered,35 — Dr.Hales's ex- 
periments on the sap of, 42, 48 
— influence of the weather on 
the juices of, 45 — and on their 
growth, 50, et seq. — injurious 
effects of mangling or mutilat- 
ing them stated, 247. 



Planting corn, general observa- 
tions on, 208. 

beans, method of, 262. 



Plough, (the skim coulter) its use 
recommended, 173 — the differ- 
ent kinds in use noticed, 360 
— construction of the shovel 
plough, 368. 

Ploughing, fall, general remarks 
on, 134, 360 — necessary in old 
grass grounds, 165 — mode 
practised for a crop of wheat, 
193. 

, Dr. Anderson's and Mr. 



Bordley's plans of, considered, 
153, et seq. — mode to be adopt- 
ed for a fallow crop, 175 — of 
new soils, 341 — remarks on 
deep ploughing, 469 — Colonel 
Taylor's plan stated, 538. 

Plum tree, (wild) notice of, 392. 

Pompions, remarks on the culti- 
vation of, in corn fields, 266. 

Poultry, the dung of, highly use- 
ful as manure, 115. 

Potatoes, \\vt. cultivation of, with 
a view to the destruction of 
weeds considered, 140 — inju- 
rious effects of cutting their 
tops for cattle food, 159 — their 
cultivation as a mixed crop 
with corn noticed, 162— on 
grass lays, 180 — the exhaust- 
ing properties of, considered, 
202 — mode of preserving dur- 
ing winter, 228 — on the econ- 
omy of, 230 — method of grow- 
ing a regular supply through 
the winter, 231 — method a- 
dopted to raise a crop of, 233 
—grass lays recommended for 
the growth of, 234 — on the 
proper kind for seed, 235 — re- 
marks on the nutritive proper- 
ties of, 429 — Mr. Bordley's 
estimate of the expense of 
raising a crop, considered, 430 
— the fattening of hogs with, 
id. — Dr. Anderson's mode of 



561 



planting considered, 471 — Mr. 
Watson's plan noticed, page 
508. 
Pyrites, their value as a manure 
noticed, 17. 

R. 

RJQS, wooWen, successfully em- 
ployed as manure, 113. 

Rape cake, highly esteemed as a 
manure, 119. 

Eats, their destructiveness, and 
the best mode of destroying 
them, 372. * 

Red clover lay, esteemed as the 
best preparation for a fallow 
crop of maize, 132 — its culti- 
vation advised with a view to 
the destruction of weeds, 145 
—observations on the growth 
and management of, 291, ei seq. 

Red clover, on the stubble crop 
of, 289 — the second crop, 299 
—■its effects on cattle noticed, 
id, 320 — on the method of mak- 
ing it into hay, 230. 

Ridging, the practice considered, 
163 — bad consequences result- 
ing from, stated, 176 — how used 
on wet grounds, 192. 

Roots of plants, on the growth of, 
in certain situations, 36 — on 
the roots of the Indian corn, 
215. 

Rocks, on the blowing of, 419. 

Ruta baga, some remarks on the 
growth of, 244. 

Rust, on the disease so called 
which affects maize, 219. 

Rye, remarks on the cultivation 
of, 285. - ,*<.r 



SALIJSTE SUBSTAJVCES, the 

theory of, as manures, consi- 
dered, 12. 
Salivation produced by cattle 
feeding on clover, on the causes 
of, 292 — how prevented, 293. 



Sap of plants, the theory of Sir 
H. Davy on this subject consi- 
dered, 41 — Hales's experi- 
ments on, 42,48 — facts relating 
to the influence of the weather 
on, 45 — remarks on the course 
of, 528. 

Salt, the practice of giving it to 
cattle considered, 313 

Scotland, on the convertible hus- 
bandry of, 480. 

Seaweed, successfully employed 
as manure, 116. 

Seeds, grass, remarks on the pre- 
servation of, 165 — the English 
method of sowing considered, 
167 — the proper mode pointed 
out, id. 294. 

Seeds, grain, remarks on the se- 
lection and preservation of, 
203, 255. 

Sheep, on the washing of, 3 — re- 
marks on the rearing of, 317, 
418. 

Sheep^s trotters, a valuable ma- 
nure, 113. 

Shell lime, its effects, 5. 

Shovel plough, on the construc- 
tion and use of, 368. 

Sinclair (Sir John) his Systems 
of Scotch Husbandry noticed, 
480. 

Sleep of the leaves, remarks on 
the, 53. 

Snow, remarks on the opinion of 
its smothering the wheat plants, 
280— its effects on rye, 283. 

Soils, effects of gypsum on, 2 — 
on the nature of, 78 — on the 
paring and burning of, 80, et 
seq. — ill effects arising from, 
83 — remarks on moist soils, 
121 — Jethro TuU's method of 
treating thin soils considered, 
130 — on the preparation of 
soils for crops, 172, et seq. — 
how prepared for a general 
round of crops, 190 — method 
of treating wet soils, 193 — on 
the application of lime to thin 

B 



562 



INDEX. 



soils, 253 — observations on the 
soils of newly settled lands, 
338 — on the preparation of, 
341 — on the kind proper for 
peach orchards, page 381. 
Soiling, on the plants proper to 
be sown for, 246 — observa- 
tions on the practice of, 307 — 
the advantages arising from. 

Soot, its valuable elTects on ve- 
gefation, 90, 117. 

Speargrass Inyn, on the value of, 
as a preparation fur a fallow 
crop of maize, 132. 

■ recommended for 

fallow crops, 171, 188. 

Spring crops, remarks on, 145. 

Sjiriiig wheat, observations on 
the culture of, 279 — its flour 
preferable to that of winter 
grain, 280 — less liable to da- 
ujage from the Hessian fly, id. 

Street dirt, its value as manure 
noticed, 116. 

Straw, how best used as manure, 
116 — its use when mixed with 
the food of cattle noticed, 314 
—injurious effects of winter- 
feeding cattle on, 455. 

Star hyacinth, its rapid growth, 
137 — how eradicated, 138. 

Stevens, (Mr.) his wager crop of 
corn noticed, 161, 436. 

Stone coal, its value as a manure 
considered, 116. 

Stubble grounds, on the cultiva- 
tion of, 129 — on the cutting 
of, 187. 

Stubble crop grasses, on the ma- 
nagement of, 289. 

Stumps, on the removal of, 4l7. 

Sulphate of barytes, a valuable 
manure, 15. 

Sugar tree, observations on the, 
393— on the planting and ma- 
nagement of, 394 — soil proper 
for, 398— directions for making 
sugar from, 399. 

Swedish turnip, notice of, 244. 



T. 

TJJ\^JVER'S waste bark, its va- 
lue as a manure noticed, 119. 

Taylor, (Cdloneljhis observations 
on the influence of the atmos- 
phere on the growth of trees 
considered, 52(5 — his practice 
of farming noticed, 538. 

Threshing mill, (Scotch) observa- 
tions on the employment of,485. 

Transplanting'^ of beans, 262 — 
of corn, id. 

Trees, remarks on the girdling 
of, 63 — on the Uving part o^ 
68— on the pith of, 69 — influ- 
ence of the atmosphere on the 
growth of, 526. 

Trench ploughing, remarks on, 
469. 

Timber, observations on the sea- 
soning of, 65 — on the renewal 
of, in forests, 73 — remarks on 
the waste of, by new settlers, 
331 

Timothy, on the growth and ma- 
nagement of, 289, 305. 

Top dressing, vemarks on, 104. 

Topping of corn, injurious effects 
of, 159. 

Turnips, their value as manure 
noticed, 142 — grass lays re- 
commended as proper for the 
growth of, 179 — their exhaust- 
ing properties considered, 202 
— on the best method of ob- 
taining a crop of, 241, 429 — 
employment of the drill for 
planting, 243 — account of the 
ruta baga or Swedish turnip, 
244 — instructions for growing 
turnips on grass grounds with- 
out dung, 511. 

V. 

VJRGIJVM gourdseed com de- 
scribed, 203. 

Volney's opinion respecting the 
changes of climate considered, 

228. 



INEDX. 



u. 

UjYDER DRJIJSriJ\'G, on the 

practice of, page 105. 
Urine, its value as manure notic- 
ed, 114. 

W. 

WATER, its immense power as 
a promoter of vegetation con- 
sidered, 120, 192. 

Water furrows^ on the formation 
of, 193— their use, 198 — their 
adoption recommended, 199. 

Weather, its influence on the 
growth of plants noticed, 45, 
50, et seq. — and on the growth 
of wheat particularly, 280. 

Weeds, their use as a manure, 27, 
101, 116 — how best destroyed, 
141. 

Wheat, on the cause of mildew 



in, 29— directions for the pre- 
paration of the soil for a crop 
of, 187— method practised to 
obtain a crop of, 193 — on the 
sowing of, 273 — on spring 
wheat, 279 — effects of snow on, 
280— on the use of the Ameri- 
can drill for sowing, 362. 

Whitewashing fruit trees, benefi- 
cial effects of, 383. 

Winter grain, observations on the 
cultivation of, 193. 

Wool, damaged, useful as ma- 
nure, 113. 



rOUJVG, (Arthur) on the agri- 
cultural writings of, 443, et seq. 
— his remarks on the manage- 
ment of clayey or retentive 
soils noticed, 488. 



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